The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (Summary and Themes)

 

Chapters 1–3

The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is written as a first-person narrative from the point of view of the central character, Huckleberry (or Huck) Finn. Huck addresses the reader directly throughout the work, and occasionally refers to events that occurred in one of Twain's previous works, The Adventures of Tom Sawyer, in which Huck was a supporting character. Of the previous book, Huck notes, “That book was made by Mr. Mark Twain, and he told the truth, mainly.”

Huck picks up his story where it left off in The Adventures of Tom Sawyer: he and Tom, two boys who live on the Mississippi River in the Missouri town of St. Petersburg, found a large amount of gold left by robbers in a cave. The money—amounting to six thousand dollars each—has been put in the care of Judge Thatcher, who gives the boys interest earnings in the amount of one dollar each day. Huck has been unofficially adopted by the Widow Douglas (to the apparent dismay of her sister Miss Watson), who hopes to transform the rough-edged boy into a forthright young man. For Huck, such a life is too restrictive; as he puts it, “All I wanted was to go somewhere; all I wanted was a change.”

One night Tom Sawyer shows up to take Huck to a secret meeting with some other boys; as they sneak away from the house, one of Miss Watson's slaves—Jim—hears the boys, who carefully evade him. Tom takes the group of boys to a cave along the river. He plans to start a gang of highway robbers to terrorize the local roadways, killing and ransoming the men travelers and kidnapping the women—who, according to the plan, would eventually fall in love with them. The group discusses the logistics of such an operation, including what a “ransom” is and what happens when the robbers' cave becomes overfilled with kidnapped women and men waiting to be ransomed. Soon enough, Huck realizes that Tom's gang of robbers is only meant to engage in pretend robberies; this disappoints him, though he still plays along. Tom also tells Huck how to summon a genie from a tin lamp; Huck later tries this without success, and decides “all that stuff was only just one of Tom Sawyer's lies.”

Chapters 4–6

Over the next several months, Huck becomes accustomed to his life with Widow Douglas and Miss Watson. He even starts growing fond of school. One morning, Huck finds tracks in the snow outside the widow's house; he is certain they belong to his father, called Pap, an abusive drunk whom Huck has not seen for over a year. Huck immediately visits Judge Thatcher and gives up his fortune to keep his father from getting hold of it, selling it to the judge for a single dollar.

Huck returns to his room one night to find Pap waiting for him. Pap threatens to beat Huck if he continues going to school. Pap tells him, “You've put on considerable many frills since I been away. I'll take you down a peg before I get done with you.” Then Pap takes Huck's only dollar to buy whisky.

Pap visits Judge Thatcher in an attempt to get at Huck's money. Thatcher and Widow Douglas try to secure legal guardianship of Huck, but the judge who hears the case is not willing to “interfere” and officially break up Huck's “family.” Later, the same judge takes Pap into his home in an attempt to help him straighten his life out. Pap promises to reform, but he continues to drink and gets kicked out of the judge's house.

Pap persists in his legal fight for Huck's money, and occasionally beats his son for continuing to attend school. As Huck states, “I didn't want to go to school much, before, but I reckoned I'd go now to spite pap.” Eventually, Pap snatches Huck and takes him to a secluded log cabin on the Illinois side of the Mississippi River, where he keeps the boy against his will. Kept away from the widow, Huck soon returns to his comfortable old ways, wearing rags for clothes, smoking, and swearing. Pap beats him regularly, however, and Huck waits for a chance to escape.

Chapters 7–9

One morning, while checking some fishing lines, Huck spots an empty canoe drifting down the river. He hides the canoe to help when he makes his escape. Later that day, Pap leaves for town, and Huck sees his chance. He stages the cabin so it appears that someone has broken in and killed him, and that his body is somewhere in the river. This, he believes, will keep Pap and Widow Douglas from trying to track him down. He takes the canoe, stocked with some food and tools, to a heavily wooded island in the middle of the river called Jackson's Island.

The next morning, Huck wakes to the sound of cannon fire; he sees smoke near the ferryboat upriver, and figures out what is happening. “You see, they was firing cannon over the water, trying to make my carcass come to the top.” The ferry draws closer to the island, and Huck sees many people he knows aboard it, including Pap, Judge Thatcher, and Tom Sawyer. Once the ferry departs, Huck knows they will not return.

After a few days of camping and fishing, Huck finds evidence of others nearby. He leaves for a different part of the island, and is surprised when he sees Miss Watson's slave Jim camped alone in the woods. Huck approaches, but Jim—thinking Huck has died—is terrified by what he assumes to be Huck's ghost. Huck explains how he escaped from Pap's cabin, and asks why Jim is out in the woods. Jim tells Huck that he ran off when he heard Miss Watson was planning to sell him to a slave trader from New Orleans. Huck promises not to tell Jim's secret to anybody.

Huck and Jim find a large cavern in the center of the island, and decide it would make a suitable camp protected from the elements. One night, they see a frame house drifting down along the river; they row the canoe out to it and climb inside, where they find a dead man who has been shot in the back. Jim covers the dead man's face and tells Huck not to look at it. The two also find some supplies in the house, including some knives, candles, and a hatchet, which they gather up and take with them.

Chapters 10–12

One evening, Huck finds a rattlesnake in the cave and kills it; as a prank, he leaves it in Jim's bed to find later that night. When Jim gets in bed, however, he finds not just the dead rattlesnake but also its live mate, which bites him. It takes four days for Jim to recover.

Huck, feeling anxious for excitement, decides to put on a dress and bonnet—found when they scavenged the drifting house—and go ashore, pretending to be a girl. He comes upon a shanty occupied by a woman he has never seen before, and knocks on the door.

Pretending to be a girl named Sarah Williams, Huck listens as the woman tells him about the latest news in town: Huck Finn has been killed, and Miss Watson's slave Jim is the main suspect since he disappeared the very night after Huck did. A three-hundred-dollar reward has been offered for the apprehension of Jim, and the woman's husband is part of a group of men preparing to search Jackson Island for the fugitive slave. During the course of the conversation, the woman realizes that “Sarah” is actually a boy, and confronts him. Huck invents a new lie, calling himself George Peters, and manages to earn the woman's sympathy as well as a snack for the road. Huck hurries back to the island and warns Jim about the coming search party.

Huck and Jim set off from the island and continue down the Mississippi River, passing St. Louis and other towns along the way. One stormy night, they spot a steamboat wrecked on some rocks. Huck convinces Jim to board it and see if they can find anything worth taking. Once on board, Huck clandestinely discovers three criminals are already on the wreck; two of them have the third tied up, with the intention of leaving him to die. Huck tells Jim they should set the criminals' boat adrift and escape themselves, but Jim informs him that their own raft has broken loose and drifted away.

Chapters 13–15

Huck and Jim search the perimeter of the wrecked steamer in search of the criminals' boat. They find it, and as soon as the opportunity presents itself they hop in and cut it loose. Afterward, Huck feels bad about leaving the criminals aboard the sinking wreck; not wanting to be responsible for anyone's death, even thieves and murderers, he decides to stop downriver and let someone know there are people trapped aboard the wrecked steamer. Huck and Jim catch up to their raft and reclaim it. Soon after, Huck spots a ferryboat and approaches the captain with a tale about a horse-ferry getting snagged on the wrecked steamboat. He tells the captain that his family is stuck on the sinking wreck. As the ferryboat heads off to help, Huck feels proud of this good deed:

I wished the widow knowed about it. I judged she would be proud of me for helping these rapscallions, because rapscallions and dead beats is the kind the widow and good people takes the most interest in.

Soon after, Huck sees the wreck of the steamer floating downstream, with no sign of survivors. He feels bad for the gang of criminals, but quickly recovers. He and Jim sort through the plunder the criminals had stashed in their boat, finding cigars, books, blankets, and clothes, among other things. As they smoke the cigars, the two discuss the lives of kings, particularly King Solomon and the “dolphin” (Dauphin, the heir to the French throne), a boy who had been destined to become the king of France but either died or went into hiding after the French Revolution to avoid execution.

Huck and Jim continue down the river, trying to reach a town called Cairo, where the Ohio River flows into the Mississippi; there, they hope to proceed up the Ohio River on a steamboat to reach one of the “free states” where Jim would no longer be considered a slave. They get stuck in a fog bank and become separated, with Jim on the raft and Huck in a canoe. When Huck finally catches up with Jim—who has fallen asleep—he wakes Jim and plays a prank on him, convincing Jim that he must have dreamed up the whole separation. When Huck reveals his prank, Jim, who had been overjoyed to see Huck again, gets upset; he had considered Huck his friend and had been worried about him, but Huck's only interest was in making Jim look like a fool. After thinking it over, Huck apologizes to Jim.

Chapters 16–18

As they continue on their search for Cairo, Huck begins to question the morality of his own actions. He is, after all, helping a slave escape his owner—an action Huck sees as a betrayal to the owner. Still, when a group of men approaches Huck looking for runaway slaves, Huck protects Jim by keeping the men away from the raft; he hints to the men that his father is on the raft, and that he has smallpox.

Huck and Jim soon realize that they have drifted far south of Cairo and the Ohio River. Since taking the raft against the current is impossible, they devise a plan to canoe back upriver during the night in search of Cairo; however, they find their canoe has disappeared. As they drift downriver looking for someone willing to sell them a canoe, their raft is struck by a steamboat headed upriver; the two are separated, and Huck struggles to shore.

Huck falls into the company of the Grangerford family, who take him in (Huck tells them his name is George Jackson). Huck soon discovers that the Grangerfords are in the midst of a feud with another local family, the Shepherdsons. Huck also discovers—through the family's slaves—that Jim is alive and well, and that their old raft is still seaworthy. Before Huck can leave the Grangerfords, though, the feud between the families explodes: daughter Sophia Grangerford runs away with Harney Sheperdson to get married, and neither family approves. This culminates in a gunfight between the two families, and Buck Grangerford—youngest of the clan, and Huck's closest friend in the family—is killed. Huck escapes the trouble, finds Jim, and they continue down the river.

Chapters 19–21

As Huck searches for berries near the shore one day, two men run toward him and beg Huck to help them reach safety, saying a search party of men and dogs is after them. Huck takes the two back to the raft, where they reveal their stories: the two are con men, each running a different racket, who happened across each other during their separate escapes from angry townspeople. The two men try to outdo each other with their stories. The younger man claims to be the rightful Duke of Bridgewater, while the older claims to be none other than the now-elderly Dauphin, the rightful heir to the throne of France. Each of the men asks for special, “royal” treatment from the other, and Huck and Jim end up acting as servants for both. Huck eventually admits to the reader that he knows the men are not really royalty (though he refers to them as “the duke” and “the king” throughout the rest of the book), but he plays along just to keep things peaceful.

Huck tells the two inquisitive con men that Jim is his family's slave, and that he and Jim are on their way to live with Huck's uncle south of New Orleans. The group reaches a small town, and finds the entire population away at a prayer meeting; the duke helps himself to the local printing office, earning some cash and printing flyers that advertise Jim as a runaway slave from a plantation near New Orleans. By showing the flyer, the group is free to travel the river during the day as well as night; if anyone inquires about Jim, they can say he is a runaway slave who has already been caught.

Chapters 22–24

The duke and the king continue to ply their trade as they move along the river, posing as distinguished actors and swindling locals out of the admission to their show; they always manage to stay one step ahead of the angry townspeople. Then the con men hear of an inheritance yet to be claimed by a local dead man's distant brothers, and decide to pose as the two brothers so they can get the inheritance.

The men show up at the village posing as Harvey and William Wilks, brothers to Peter Wilks, who is deceased. Harvey, played by the king, affects an English accent, while William—played by the duke—pretends to be a deaf-mute. Huck acts as their servant, while Jim stays at the raft.

Chapters 25–27

The two “Wilks brothers” are welcomed by the townspeople, including Peter Wilks's three nieces, Mary Jane, Susan, and Joanna. Mary Jane gives the king a letter revealing the location of Peter's hidden fortune, which amounts to nearly six thousand dollars that is to be left to the nieces. The girls entrust the fortune to their new uncles. Huck, who has grown fond of the girls, decides he will not let the con men steal their inheritance, and steals it back from the duke and the king. He is almost caught, and in a panic he drops the money into the deceased Peter's coffin.

The con men auction off the Wilks family's slaves, and then discover that the inheritance money is missing. Huck shrewdly suggests that the slaves stole the money, and were now beyond the reach of the con men. The duke and the king believe him.

Chapters 28–30

As the con men prepare to auction off the rest of Peter Wilks's property for cash, Huck realizes—much to his consternation—that the only way to help the girls is to tell Mary Jane the truth, even though telling the truth seems to him “so kind of strange and unregular.” He tells her everything, including where he left the money.

Just as the duke and the king finish selling off the Wilks estate, two men arrive in town claiming to be the real Harvey and William Wilks. Unsure whom to believe, the townspeople grab Huck and the con men until the matter is sorted out. Peter's coffin is exhumed—part of a test to determine which set of Wilks brothers can identify a tattoo on Peter's chest—and the townspeople discover the money inside the coffin. In the excitement, Huck escapes from the crowd and makes his way back to the raft. As he and Jim start off down the river, the duke and king catch up and board the raft.

Chapters 31–33

The king and the duke, desperate for money, spend their time huddled in secret conversations. Meanwhile, Huck and Jim plan to leave the two con men behind as soon as the opportunity arises. At one stop, Huck slips free of the king and the duke in a town and runs back to the raft, hoping to escape with Jim. When he arrives, Jim is nowhere to be found. He discovers that the king and the duke have sold Jim off to locals as a runaway slave; by presenting the fake flyer the duke had printed—the one offering a two-hundred-dollar reward for Jim—they sell their “rights” to Jim for forty dollars in cash. In this way, the duke and the king manage to swindle the locals and betray Huck and Jim.

Huck debates what he should do; he knows that “the right thing and the clean thing” is to write a letter to Miss Watson, telling her the location of her runaway slave. However, when he thinks of what a great friend Jim has been, he decides to follow the path of “wickedness” and help Jim escape. As Huck surveys the Phelps farm, where Jim is being held, he is spotted by one of the family's slaves and is mistaken for a visiting nephew. Huck plays along, and soon discovers that the “nephew” he is impersonating is none other than Tom Sawyer. Tom's Aunt Sally and Uncle Silas welcome the boy into their home as their nephew.

Huck manages to intercept the real Tom Sawyer before he reaches the Phelps farm, and after convincing Tom that he is not a ghost, explains the whole situation to him. Tom is thrilled at the prospect of adventure; not only does Tom pretend to be Sid Sawyer (since the Phelpses have already met “Tom”), but he also agrees to help Huck free Jim.

Chapters 34–39

Tom and Huck come up with plans to set Jim free. Huck's plan is straightforward and simple, which is why Tom objects: “What's the good of a plan that ain't no more trouble than that? It's as mild as goose-milk.” Instead, Tom devises an elaborate plan reminiscent of a classic adventure novel, deliberately avoiding any easy or obvious solutions. For example, instead of lifting up the leg of the bed to slip Jim's chain off, Tom insists they saw through the leg of the bed—and that only after Huck convinces him that sawing through Jim's leg is not a viable option. Instead of using the door to escape Jim's cabin prison, Tom decides they will tunnel their way out.

Tom and Huck fill Jim's cabin with snakes, rats, and spiders to make his prison more dire, and continue working on equally absurd things like a rope-ladder that will never be used and a “warning letter” to tell Uncle Silas of impending trouble. Aunt Sally notices that items such as shirts and spoons are disappearing from the household, but does not suspect that Tom and Huck are using them for any big escapade.

Chapter 40–42

On the night of the escape, Uncle Silas brings additional men to guard Jim's cabin, but Jim and the boys slip out through the tunnel and head for the woods. They are spotted, and some of the men open fire. Although they escape, Tom is shot in the calf and needs a doctor. Instead of running away to safety, Jim insists on staying with Tom while Huck gets a doctor. However, Huck gets trapped back at the Phelpses' before the doctor returns. Eventually the doctor, Tom—still ill from his wound—and Jim all show up at the farm. The doctor tells everyone that Jim “ain't a bad n-----,” and that he helped the doctor treat Tom's wound even though he knew staying would cost him his freedom.

When Tom recovers the next morning, he tells Aunt Sally all about their plan to free Jim—not knowing that Jim has been recaptured. Tom objects, and reveals that Miss Watson, Jim's former owner, died two months before; in her will, she stipulated that Jim be set free. When asked why he would go through so much trouble to set a free man free, Tom says he “wanted the adventure of it.” At that moment, Tom's Aunt Polly appears at the Phelps farm and reveals the true identities of “Sid” and “Tom.” She also confirms that Jim is a free man.

Huck makes two important discoveries. Tom tells him that Judge Thatcher is still holding Huck's money for him, all six thousand dollars and more. Then Jim confesses to Huck that the dead man he saw in the frame house floating down the river, so many weeks before, was actually Huck's father.

Tom suggests that he, Huck, and Jim head for the Indian Territories to have some adventures. Huck ends his story, saying:

But I reckon I got to light out for the Territory ahead of the rest, because Aunt Sally she's going to adopt me and sivilize me and I can't stand it. I been there before.

Themes

Slavery

Slavery is one of the key thematic elements in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. The novel takes place in Missouri in the 1830s or 1840s, at a time when Missouri was considered a slave state. Soon after Huck fakes his own death, he partners with Jim, a runaway slave from the household where Huck used to live. Although the book purports to be about Huck's “adventures,” the story is driven by Jim's attempt to achieve freedom and safety for himself, and ultimately for his wife and children. Huck is, in a sense, just along for the journey; however, it is Huck's perspective on Jim's struggle that allows the author to address the topic of slavery in a unique and entertaining way.

By telling the story from the point of view of a young white man raised amid slavery, Twain looks at the issue from an entirely different viewpoint than previous writers: while Huck almost never fails to do the “right” thing in the eyes of the reader, because of his upbringing he cannot help but feel that his actions are actually wicked and immoral. When Huck first finds Jim, he promises not to reveal Jim's secret: “People would call me a low down Ablitionist and despise me for keeping mum—but that don't make no difference. I ain't agoing to tell.”

As Jim believes he is close to achieving his own freedom, his thoughts turn toward saving his family from slavery. Huck is shocked by Jim's plans, which he relates to the reader:

He was saying how the first thing he would do when he got to a free State he would go to saving up money and never spend a single cent, and when he got enough he would buy his wife, which was owned on a farm close to where Miss Watson lived; and then they would both work to buy the two children, and if their master wouldn't sell them, they'd get an Ab'litionist to go and steal them.

The issue of slavery plays a part in the most important events in the book: Jim runs away because he believes he will be sold to a slave trader and separated from his family; Huck lies to people he meets to hide the fact that Jim is a runaway slave; the king turns Jim in as a runaway slave—not knowing Jim actually is one—just to con some locals for cash; Tom and Huck help Jim escape his captors so he can again try for his freedom; Jim forfeits his freedom in order to help keep Tom alive; and finally, the pair realize that all their running and scheming was in vain because Jim is a free man after all.

Dehumanization

In The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, blacks are subject to dehumanizing treatment from nearly every white character in the book. This is not inconsistent with a tale set in the pre–Civil War South, where blacks were routinely viewed as property above all else. Indeed, one of Huck's primary inner conflicts deals with his “wicked” impulses to treat Jim as more than just someone's property. Additionally, Jim's escape is prompted when Miss Watson considers selling him off to a slave trader despite the fact that Jim has served her well and she knows that such an action would separate Jim from his family.

One notable example of the white characters' disregard for black characters' humanity occurs in Chapter 32, when Huck shows up at the Phelps residence pretending to be Tom Sawyer. Huck, speaking to Aunt Sally, invents a mechanical problem that held up the boat he supposedly traveled on:

“It warn't the grounding—that didn't keep us back but a little. We blowed a cylinder-head.”

“Good gracious! anybody hurt?”

“No'm. Killed a n-----.”

“Well, it's lucky; because sometimes people do get hurt.”

For many characters in the novel, the notion that blacks are indeed people simply seems beyond any consideration. In many scenes, Twain appears to be satirizing the callousness with which people at that time routinely dismissed the black people's personhood. The insensitivity is so pervasive that even Jim accepts the premise that he is “property,” and is proud of how much he is worth; in Chapter 8, while pondering his freedom, Jim tells Huck, “I's rich now, come to look at it. I owns myself, en I's wuth eight hund'd dollars.”

In the final chapters of the book, Tom Sawyer devises an elaborate plan to free Jim from the cabin where he is being held. Tom treats Jim as a sort of set-piece in his grand escape production, without any noticeable regard for Jim's comfort or needs; Tom asks Jim to perform nonsensical and in some cases impossible acts, and even fills Jim's bed with spiders and snakes. Ultimately, Huck is the only major character to treat Jim with the respect of an equal—and even when he does, he curses himself for doing what he believes is an immoral thing.

Prejudice

Throughout the novel, the white characters operate under the belief that Jim—because he is black—simply cannot comprehend certain concepts and explanations. Huck in particular comments on numerous occasions about Jim's inability to understand the way the world works. The recurring irony in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is that the white characters frequently have an inaccurate or even absurd view of how the world works themselves.

Twain uses this device to great comic effect by showing that Jim often has more common sense or cleverness than the other characters in the book, though prejudice prevents the other characters from seeing it. For example, when Huck tries to explain to Jim why it is natural for French people to speak a different language, Jim takes Huck's own flawed logic and turns it on its head, “proving” that it makes no sense at all for French people to speak a different language. Huck fails to even acknowledge that Jim has outwitted him, stating simply, “I see it warn't no use wasting words—you can't learn a n----- to argue.”

Similarly, in Chapter 35, Tom ponders whether or not they should see through Jim's leg for the planned escape—not because it is necessary, but because he has read of such things in adventure books. Eventually, Tom decides, “There ain't necessity enough in this case; and besides, Jim's a n----- and wouldn't understand the reasons for it, and how it's the custom in Europe; so we'll let it go.”

Even when Jim is recognized for his commendable actions, as in Chapter 42, prejudice still taints the acknowledgement he receives. When Tom is shot during the attempt to free Jim, Jim decides he will not leave Tom until a doctor has treated him, even though such an act will probably cost Jim his freedom. When Jim says this, Huck tells the reader he knows Jim is actually “white inside”; the implication in Huck's words is that only a white person could show such kindness and consideration for another person. And though any white person who had been instrumental in helping to save Tom's life would have been hailed as a hero, the doctor's praise is limited to simply letting everyone know that Jim “ain't no bad n-----.”

 

Milton's Grand Style in Paradise Lost Book-1

 

John Milton's epic poem Paradise Lost is widely regarded as a masterpiece of literature.  His grand style is one of the most striking aspects of this epic. In the grand writing style, a poet uses grand similes, far-fetched metaphors and makes allusions to different myths, incidents and folk tales as per his knowledge and experiences. A poet who practices writing poems with a grand style does not think about the knowledge of his readers; he usually has more knowledge as compared to his readers, hence, readers need to upgrade their knowledge to read an epic poem.

It is a well-known fact that John Milton was a man of letters. Paradise Lost is the result of his hard work. He read the bible again and again and also compared his epic poem with the Greeks and made changes to it before publishing, hence, he had more than enough knowledge. If we compare the words of Paradise Lost with any modern poem, we realize that the epic poem is not for uneducated people; rather it has been written for highly educated people. There are more than enough words that create ambiguity in the poem. Every time Milton uses them their meanings change with the situation, hence, extra knowledge is required to understand them. Thus, Milton’s grand style in Paradise Lost involves his high vocabulary.

It has also been said that Milton either does not know the grammar or he has deliberately corrupted the English language. He is the one who has supported the trend of writing poetry with blank verse. In order to accomplish his goals he puts the words randomly in the sentences. Although the English language has changed a lot and modern readers cannot read classical poetry without the help of a dictionary yet from sentence structure, Paradise Lost is also much more difficult to read due to Milton’s grand style. Further, the poet uses very few and odd punctuation marks. Hardly has he used any question mark in a line that is based on an interrogative sentence. Readers need to read it twice to understand that it is a question. Thus, loose sentence structure is also another charge against John Milton.

Milton uses numerous similes and metaphors in his book Paradise Lost. A simile is a poetic device that creates beauty in the poem. It helps us to imagine something. Similarly, the metaphor also does the same. For instance, when a poet says about a character that he is as brave as a lion or writes he is a lion we imagine him as a courageous person who is ready to face and endure danger or pain. The problem lies when one does not have knowledge about the thing that has been used for simile or metaphor. A lot of examples are there from Paradise Lost where Milton uses similes. For instance, he compares Satan’s spear with the tallest pine tree. It is acceptable so far as the people understand it but when the poet compares Satan with the Sea beast Leviathan. It is somewhat difficult to understand what the poet wants to convey. He makes allusions to Jewish mythology, in which Leviathan is a sea serpent; hence, a common reader cannot understand this allusion until and unless he has a strong knowledge of Jewish mythology. Consequently, deep knowledge is required to read Paradise Lost which contains Milton’s grand style.

Milton’s grand style is characterized by its philosophical musings. Paradise Lost is not just an epic poem but a profound exploration of theology, philosophy, and human nature. The poem addresses complex issues such as free will, the nature of sin and redemption, and the role of God in human affairs. It is in its philosophical ambition that Milton's grand style shines most brightly. He uses his grand language, vivid imagery, and extended similes to explore these issues in a way that is both profound and accessible, creating a rich and thought-provoking work of literature.

            In conclusion, John Milton has been regarded as the best poet especially because of his epic poem Paradise Lost. He selected or invented a style of writing that best suited him at that time. Paradise Lost remained unsurpassable until now due to the narration in the poem. His use of blank verse, extended similes, and philosophical musings contribute to the overarching grandeur of the poem. Milton’s grand style, coupled with the poem’s themes and subject matter, has made it one of the most widely read and studied works of English literature.

God Sees the Truth but Waits (Question-Answers)

 

Questions and Answers

1. Answer the following questions in a sentence or two each, based on your understanding of the story.

a) Why did Aksionov’s wife stop him from going to the fair?

Ans: Aksionov’s wife had a bad dream. It was a premonition of some impending harm coming to him. So, she dissuaded him from going to the fair.

b) Why was Aksionov’s wife disturbed to see the dream?

Ans: In the dream, Aksionov’s wife saw him returning from the town with grey hair in place of his normal hair. This unusual sight made her perplexed.  

c) What made Aksionov leave the inn before dawn?

Ans: Aksionov wanted to reach the town before the sun got hot. So, he decided to leave the in rather early. 

d) What were the circumstances that led to Aksionov’s imprisonment?

Ans: The merchant with whom Aksionov spent the previous night had been found with his throat slit. Aksionov was the prime suspect for the crime because circumstantial evidence went against him. He had left the inn unusually early, and more importantly, the blood-stained knife allegedly used in the murder was found hidden in his bag. With these two, the police assumed Aksionov to be the perpetrator of the crime.    

e) Why did Aksionov give up sending petitions?

Ans: After a few of his fervent appeals proved to be futile, Aksionov gave up writing any more applications. 

f) Why didn’t Makar disclose that he had killed the merchant?

Ans: Makar was secretive about his past deeds as he was immoral and timid by nature. So he did not disclose that he had killed the merchant.

g) Did Makar feel guilty when he heard Aksionov’s story?

Ans: Yes, Makar felt guilty when he heard Askionov’s story.

h) What made Aksionov think that Makar was the real murderer?

Ans: After hearing Aksionov’s account, Makkar began to be evasive and aloof. When Aksionov asked whether he knew the murderer, he replied rather emphatically that the person from whose bag the weapon was retrieved must be the culprit. He even argued that the innocence of the accused could only be upheld if the placing of the knife in the baggage by the real murderer could be conclusively established. Makkar was speaking like the prosecutor rather than an ordinary listener of the story.  Such stridency of Makkaer made Aksionov think that Makar was the real murderer.

i) What was Aksionov’s realization by the end of the story?

Ans: Aksinov’s faith in God was bolstered many times after the story ended with the change of heart of Makar. He concluded that ‘God sees the truth, but waits.’ 

j) Why did Aksionov’s wife suspect him of involvement in the murder?

Ans: Aksionov’s wife discovered that the police had built a strong case against her husband. In exasperation, and overtaken by anguish, she confronted her husband with the awkward question about him being the murderer.

2. Answer the following questions in three or four sentences each.

a) Did the police officer have sufficient evidence to convict Aksionov?

Ans: Yes, the police officer had sufficient evidence to convict Aksionov. The fact that Aksionov left the inn too early, and the murder weapon was found to be in his possession pinned him to the crime.

b) What impact did the book “The Lives of Saints” have on Aksionov?

Ans: The book “The Lives of Saints” made him calm and sagacious. His fellow prisoners respected him, and adoringly called him “Grandfather,” and “The Saint.” When they found themselves mired in rancor, they came to the ‘Saint’ for the resolution of their differences.

c) How did Aksionov react when his wife suspected him?

Ans: When his wife confronted him with the question about his committing the murder, Aksinov was overwhelmed with grief, shame, and bewilderment. He had never expected that his dear and loving wife would ever suspect him of committing such a grievous offense. His wife’s question broke his heart and hurt him badly. He asserted his innocence fervently.

 

3. Answer the following questions in a paragraph of about 150 words each.

a) Compare and contrast the main characters, Aksionov and Makar Semeyonich’

Ans: Ivan Dmitrich Aksionov, the character around whom the story revolves, was an embodiment of simplicity, honesty, equanimity, and forgiveness. He bore his misfortune with grace and forbearance. He put his trust in God, and that enabled him to stay clear of bitterness and vengeance. Long years of his life were spent in jail, and his family was ravaged due to no fault of his. When the time came to exact revenge on the man who had caused him so much suffering, he became passive and demonstrated rare forgiveness towards Semeyonich, his tormentor. In a nutshell, Aksinov was a saintly person of outstanding moral character.

Makar Semeyonich, the devil of this story, was truly a hideous character. He was wicked in both mind and body. Although he had committed a murder and sent an innocent person to jail, he suffered no remorse or regret. Towards Aksinov, he was both mischievous and arrogant. He planned to dig his way out of the jail and was caught. Aksinov could have told the guards about it, and seen him beaten to a pulp by them. But, Aksinov pardoned him. Markar escaped a calamity but had no way to pay Aksinov back for his compassion.

b) Describe the life of Aksionov in prison.

Aksionov was imprisoned, since he was suspected of killing a merchant. But the actual murderer of the merchant was Semeyonich. Even his wife suspected him of the murder. This thought made him even sadder. He gave up all hope and told himself that God only knew the truth. For twenty-six years as a convict in Siberia, he grew old. In prison, Aksionov learned to make boots, and earned a little money with which he bought the book ‘The Lives of the Saints’. He used to read this book. On Sundays, in the prison church, he read the lessons and sang in the choir. The prison authorities liked him for his meekness. His fellow prisoners respected and called him “Grandfather” and “The Saint.” He was the spokesman among the prisoners. After 26 years, Semeyonich was imprisoned for his sin. Even if Aksionov realized Semeyonich was the real murderer, he saved Semeyonich from the governor in an incident. Semeyonich realized his mistake and confessed his guilt. But when the order of his release came, Aksionov was already dead.

c) Why did Aksionov decide not to reveal the truth about Makar Semeyonich?

Ans: Aksionov was imprisoned because he was suspected of killing a merchant. For twenty-six years as a convict in Siberia, he grew old. He felt that he had suffered twenty-six years in prison without committing any murder. Most of his life was spent in the prison. He had lost all his hope and his family. His wife was dead and his children had forgotten him. He thought about where he could go and he had nowhere to go. He no longer had any desire to leave the prison. But he only hoped for his last hours to come. He believed in God alone. His wife misunderstood and suspected him. In the prison, a new prisoner introduced himself and he was Makar Semeyonich. Besides, Makar Semeyonich confessed his guilt. He forgave him for revealing the truth. He did not want to take revenge on the murderer. He thought that forgiveness was the best form of revenge.

e) Discuss the meaning and importance of the title “God sees the truth but waits”.

Ans: This story was all about Aksionov who lost hope and just trusted God. Though he didn’t commit any crime, he was imprisoned for 26 years in the prison. Makar revealed the truth that he was the real murderer. Aksionov forgave him for accepting the truth and attained self-realization. But when the order of his release came, Aksionov was already dead. Our weakness can only make the problem stronger. Being hopeful can make all things possible. The title means that every decision of God needs enough time. This story is for all the people who lose hope and don’t believe in God. We should wait for the truth to win with faith in God gives us the answer to all our problems, as the title says GOD SEES THE TRUTH BUT WAITS. At the end of the story, there is a shift from materialism to spiritualism.

f) Forgiveness is the best form of revenge. Justify the story.

Ans: Aksionov lived with his wife and children in Vladimir. He decided to make a trip to the fair. His wife tried to stop him because she had a bad dream. On his way, Aksionov met a merchant. But the merchant was killed. So the local police officer was arrested and charged against Aksionov. He was sent to work in the mines of Siberia. He grew old there. Aksionov frequently prayed to God. Aksionov was respected by all the inmates due to his gentle behaviour. One day he met Makar Semeyonich. Aksionov found out the truth that Makar was the real killer. He saved Makar from the officials when he tried to escape. Eventually, Makar admitted his crime. Aksionov forgave Makar. Thus forgiving Makar, Aksionov accepted the truth, attained self-realization, and died in peace. Really Forgiveness is the best form of revenge.

Character sketch of Satan (Paradise Lost Book-1)

 

            John Milton portrays Satan as a great leader. His speeches are evident that neither he gives up on his ambitions nor does he let down the morale of his army. He is courageous, self-confident, and determined in, his plans. From the very beginning when he speaks and breaks the silence, readers realize his leadership qualities. He answers every question with confidence that Beelzebub asks him. It seems that he has inherited the best leadership qualities. He seems like a politician of modern days who always has a satisfactory answer to every question. Furthermore, he is a powerful, inspirational and motivational speaker.

            He shows his sympathy with his fellow angels. All speeches of Satan reveal that he considers himself one of them. He has clever skills in molding the minds of his army. Flattery, and making propaganda mixed with threats are also some other important leadership qualities of Satan’s character in Book 1 of Paradise Lost.

            He has been illustrated as a wicked general and a brave commander. He wants to remain a commander forever; hence, he says that it is better to reign in hell than to serve in heaven. Satan knows that he has fewer powers yet he wants to fight back with the help of fallen angels. He does everything to boost their morale. He, like a general, plans operations for them.

            The Hero of Paradise Lost remained controversial between the critics; some say that Satan is the hero whereas others regard Adam as the main hero of the poem. It is also a matter of fact that if Adam is the hero of Paradise Lost then he is action-less. Most of the action of the poem has been associated with Satan’s character and that too in Book 1 of Paradise Lost. He has an ambition to gain what he has lost. He cannot compromise on less, hence, he does everything he can to regain his lost position. The following line describes him as an ambitious hero:

                                          All is not lost unconquerable will.

            Satan knows the weaknesses of others and always finds an opportunity to discover more. He avails every opportunity that he has to avenge his enemies. He goes to Eve in the guise of a serpent and flatters her beauty. As we all know flattery is one of his best leadership qualities; therefore, he flatters her and tempts her to eat the forbidden apple.

            William Blake observes Satan and mentions that Milton belongs to the devil party. He further mentions that Milton has glorified Satan’s character, especially in Book 1 of Paradise Lost. Critics are of the view that good qualities should be attributed to the hero instead of bad ones, hence, Milton has not done poetic justice while writing his epic poem. He creates such a character that has an unyielding courage. He never loses hope nor does he give up on his ambitions. Besides, he is the most powerful character of Paradise Lost but he uses his powers to do the evil that gives a negative message to the readers. Milton has been discharged from this charge as Satan’s glorification is no more associated with him as a hero but as a villain. John Milton justifies God’s ways. He never says that Satan is the hero of his book, rather he shows the possibility that a villain can be more powerful than the hero. Whatever may be the objection of the critics, it is sure that he creates Satan a character that has an indomitable courage.

            In Book 1 of Paradise Lost John Milton gives Satan’s character a heroic stature. He makes him unique; a character that was never created in history. In Book 1 of Paradise Lost, Milton gives Satan’s character epic attributes such as a great leader, a brave general, a hero determined to his ambitions, a person who never settles on less than he deserves, a rebel, and an indomitable courageous hero.

Question-Answers of Story "The Child"

 

1)      How does Gangu convince the narrator that it is not wrong to marry Gomti? Is the narrator convinced?

Ans. Gangu tells the writer that he knows everything about Gomti and wants to marry her. He says she left her previous husbands because they did not love her. They loved only her body and not her heart. According to him, a woman wants only love. He says that he will love Gomti from the core of his heart. But the narrator is not convinced.

2)      What is the impression the narrator has of Gangu's married life with Gomti?

Ans. The narrator thinks that Gangu's married life with Gomti will not be happy. He thinks that Gomti will run away from Gangu's house too. After his marriage with Gomti, Gangu starts living in a thatched house. To earn his living, he started to sell snacks from a cart. He earns enough to meet all his needs. Now he always looked cheerful. He seemed to have no worry at all. He looks full of energy. The dignity and joy on his face is a proof of his inner peace. One day he comes across Gangu in the market. He is surprised to see that Gangu is cheerful.

3)      Is Gangu the hero of the story? If so, how does the story make him one?

Ans. Yes, Gangu is the hero of the story. In this story, he acts like a reformer. He knows that Gomti has run away from the houses of her three previous husbands. Even now she is leading a life of illreputation. But Gangu believes that one should love one's heart, not body. So, despite the protest of his master, he marries Gomti. He even adopts Gomti's child which is born to her by her previous husband. Gangu does not believe in outdated conventions.

4)      What is the role of the child in the story?

Ans. The story is appropriately named 'The Child.' The child in the title appears at the end of the story. But it plays an important role. This is the child of Gangu's wife, Gomti. But it is Gomti's child from a previous husband. Despite knowing this fact, Gangu adopts the child. This incident moves the narrator to tears. He realizes that he has been following old and useless conventions. He takes the child from Gangu. He holds the child to his breast.

5)      What did the narrator think about Gangu as a servant?

Ans. Gangu was different from other servants. The other servants bowed to him, but Gangu never greeted him like that. Being a Brahmin, he probably expected the narrator to bow to him. The narrator had not the courage to ask him to fan him in the hot weather. If ever Gangu did it, he behaved as if he were doing the narrator a great favour. Gangu never touched any of the used utensils.

6)      How did the narrator feel when Gangu said that he wanted to leave his job?

Ans. The narrator was shocked when Gangu said that he wanted to leave his job. He was considered an ideal employer. Servants considered it their good fortune to stay on with him. No servant had ever come to him with a request to leave. Naturally, the narrator felt hurt when Gangu came with such a request.

7)      Why did Gangu want to leave his job?

Ans. Gangu had decided to marry a widow named Gomti Devi. She was a woman of a bad reputation. If Gangu married her, people could raise their fingers at his master also. Gangu didn't want his master to get a bad name on his account. So, he decided to leave his job.

8)      How did Gangu feel after Gomti had left him?

Ans. Gangu was very sad after Gomti had left him. He looked completely shattered. He felt sure that he was not good enough for her. While she was educated, he was an absolute illiterate. "I must have been at fault somewhere that she decided to leave," said Gangu very sadly.

9)      Describe Gangu's life after he had married Gomti.

Ans. Gangu had left his job with the narrator. After marrying Gomti, he started living in a thatched hut. He was now always happy. His face had a glow which showed that he had no worry at all. He earned a living as a hawker. He earned about a rupee daily. After buying the stock, he was left with about ten annas. Thus, he lived a life of complete contentment.

10)  Draw a character sketch of Gangu.

Ans. Gangu is completely illiterate, but he towers far above the so-called literates. He may have been old-fashioned but in matters of humanism, no one could be more enlightened. He may not deserve respect as a Brahmin, but as a man, he is the embodiment of goodness. Whatever shortcomings he might have as a servant, he would do proud to any wife as a husband. Gangu is an old-fashioned, illiterate Brahmin. But he shows a better understanding of human character than the narrator. The narrator calls him short-tempered. But nowhere in the story do we see him reacting in that manner. The narrator blames Gomti for leaving her husbands. He never tries to analyse the reasons behind it. But Gangu puts it so rightly when he says, "Where there is no love, we cannot expect a woman to stay on. We cannot win a woman with mere board and lodging." To conclude, we can say that Gangu is an angel of love and compassion.

11)  Narrate briefly the story, 'The Child', in your own words.

Ans. Gangu was one of the narrator's servants. He was completely illiterate. One day, he told the narrator that he wanted to leave his job. He wanted to marry a woman named Gomti Devi. She was a widow and had already married three times. But Gangu found no fault in her. He said, "Where there is no love, you can't expect a woman to stay on." When the narrator saw that Gangu was determined to marry Gomti Devi, he let him go. But he was certain that the marriage wouldn't last more than a few days. And he was proved right. One day he heard that Gomti had run away. Gangu looked completely shattered. He said that he must have been at fault somewhere that Gomti had left him. He called her a goddess. The narrator called Gangu a fool who still had his eyes closed. He asked him to go and find her out if he was so much attached to her. Gangu found Gomti in the Women's Hospital in Lucknow. She had given birth to a male child. That was why she had run away. Gangu brought her back. The narrator knew that Gangu had been married for only six months. He was surprised at Gangu's shamelessness. But Gangu said that he would love the child as his own. The important thing for him was that Gomti should love him. The narrator was deeply impressed by Gangu's sentiments. He took the child from Gangu and kissed it. Then he went with Gangu to meet Gomti at their house.

Paradise Lost Book-1 Introduction

 

Book 1 of The Paradise Lost by John Milton, written in blank verse, is divided into six sections and comprises of 798 lines.

1. The first section (lines 1-26) contains the invocation and the purpose of writing.

2. The second section (lines 27-83) gives a bird-eye view of the consequences of the disobedience and the revolt and expulsion of Satan from Paradise.

3. The third section (lines 84-282) contains the speeches between Satan and Beelzebub (his commander-in-chief)

4. The fourth section (lines 283-621) gives a comprehensive detail of the demons accompanying Satan.

5. The fifth section (lines 622-669) contains the speeches of Satan to demons.

6. The sixth section (lines 670-798) gives an overview of the construction of Pandemonium.

Section 1

The poem Paradise Lost opens with an invocation and the poet explains the theme of his poem: the first act of disobedience towards God and then its consequences. The poet explains the story of Adam and Eve who ate the Fruit of the Forbidden Tree that brought sorrow and death to human beings until Jesus came to the world and purified it again bringing happiness back. Now Milton invokes the Muse (source of mystical inspiration) to assist him divinely in giving voice to his purpose of writing (Milton calls it Adventurous Song). Milton’s muse is the Holy Spirit which, in his view, makes his song superior to the others. According to Milton, his purpose of writing is to “assert Eternal Providence and justifie the ways' of God to men.”

Section 2

In section 2, Milton moves from prayer to the disobedience of Adam and Eve that occurred because of the serpent (i.e. Satan) that made them be expelled from Heaven. The poet then moves to an event before Adam and Eve. Satan who was Lucifer, an angel, who along with his companions considered himself “to have equal’d the most High” and rebelled against God. A war started between God and Satan, in which the latter was defeated and thrown out of Heaven into Hell along with his companions who are now demons. All the demons including Satan remain “rowling in the fiery Gulfe” i.e. the fire for nine days. Around them is “dungeon horrible” and fire flames. Poet describes the scene of Hell which he calls Choas. Satan ultimately regains the conscious and “with bold words breaking the horrid silence” speaks to Beelzebub.

Section 3

It comprises speeches between Satan and Beelzebub. Satan, breaking the prolonged silence says to Beelzebub, “O how fall’n! how chang’d from him, who in the happy Realms of Light Clothed with transcendent brightness didst out-shine.” He mourns over their defeat and expulsion from Heaven but does not repent his rebellion and calls his dare “injured merit”. He says that in spite of being defeated, he still has “unconquerable will”, “revenge”, “immortal hate”, and “courage”. He also acknowledges the fact that God cannot be defeated and suggests that they should find an alternate way to deal with Him who “hold the Tyranny of Heaven.” At this Beelzebub speaks up. Acknowledging the Satan’s dare to rebel against God, he says that they are now “in endless misery”. According to him, God has left “to suffer and support our pains.” Satan replies, “to do ought good never will be our task, but ever to do ill.” If God does something good, their business will be to make bad of it. He suggests moving to a nearby plain so as to discuss the war that they are supposed to wage against.

“Better to reign in Hell, then to serve in Heaven” 

Section 4

Seeing the lethargic devils, Satan speaks out,

You wearied virtue, for the ease you find

To slumber here, as in the Vales of Heavens

Or in this abject posture have ye sworn

To adore the conquerour?”

He again commands, “Awake, arise, or be for even fall in” Hearing the command, they quickly stand up and, as if they have been caught up napping while on duty. All of them assembled near Satan. They come one by one. Some of them are Moloch, Chemos, Astarte, Thammuz, Dagon, Rimmon, Osiris, Iris, Orus and Belial.

Section 5

As an army of devils gathers around Satan, he praises them by calling them ‘Myraids of immortal Spirits” and “Powers Matchless”. He asks them to not worry and encourages them to rise up again. He tells them, though they will rise again, they won’t be able to fight against God in the same way. This time they should use “fraud” and “guile”. Satan mentions some rumour that God is going to create man and thus their task will be to mess with him. All the demons “to confirm his words, out-flew millions of flames surrounds.”

Section 6

Soon after the speech, the army of demons under the command of the materialistic Mammon, start digging the ground and bring out gold and other costly minerals. With their super-power, they construct a great chamber called Pandemonium (by Milton meaning all demons). Thousands of demons shrink to fit inside it and then “After short silence then and summons read, the great consult began.”