Great Expectations: Themes

         Great Expectations is a story of the growth and development of its main character Pip. His desire for self-improvement is the main source of the novel’s title: because he believes in the prospect of advancement in life, he has “great expectations” about his future. Dickens presents Pip as an idealist; whenever he sees something better than what he has, he immediately wants it. When he sees Satis House, he yearns to be a rich gentleman; when he thinks of his moral shortcomings, he wishes to be good; when he realizes that he cannot read he wants to learn.

Pip’s desire for moral self-improvement can be seen as he is extremely hard on himself when he acts immorally and feels guilty. The feeling of guilt motivates Pip to improve his behaviour in the future. When he leaves for London, he distresses himself about having behaved dreadfully towards Joe and Biddy.

Dickens uses Pip’s desire for social self-improvement as a way of satirizing the upper classes as Pip's life as a gentleman is no more satisfying and no more moral than his previous life as an apprentice blacksmith. We see Pip develop his desire to raise his social class when he falls in love with Estella and his dreams of becoming a gentleman form the basic plot of the novel.

Pip's craving for educational improvement is deeply connected to his social ambition and his longing to marry Estella. Being a gentleman requires a good education. As an uneducated country boy, he would have no hope of social advancement in Victorian England. Pip understands this early in his childhood as he learns to read at Mr Wopsle’s aunt’s school, we also see this later in his life when he takes lessons from Matthew Pocket. It is only through his experiences with Joe, Biddy, and Magwitch that Pip learns that social and educational improvement don’t show someone’s real value and that conscience and affection are to be valued above sophistication and social standing.

In many of his novels Charles Dickens explores the theme of social class and Great Expectations is no exemption. The novel was written after the industrial revolution and the new opportunities created allowed people from ‘lower’ social classes to gain wealth through hard work and enterprise and thus move up to ‘higher’ more wealthy classes.

During the novel, Pip interacts with people from different classes from criminals like Magwitch, poor working-class people like Joe and Biddy, the middle class like Pumblechook and the very wealthy like Miss Havisham.

The theme of social class is central to the novel’s plot and through his interaction with characters from different backgrounds, Pip comes to realise that wealth and class are less important than affection, loyalty, and inner worth, which provides the reader with the novel’s key moral.

The theme of crime and guilt is explored by Dickens throughout the novel largely through the characters of the convicts and the criminal lawyer Jaggers. Dickens uses the character of Magwitch to advise the reader that punitive punishment and failure to deal with poverty and other primary factors that lead people to commit crimes only make matters worse and cause criminals to re-offend.

Magwitch’s trial for returning to England highlights the failings of the legal system at the time as his show trial was only going to have one outcome – his being sentenced to death.

The imagery of crime and criminal justice is seen throughout the novel, from Joe mending handcuffs at the smithy to the gallows in London. These become an important symbol of Pip’s inner struggle with his own moral conscience and the justice system.

When Pip first meets Magwitch he is terrified because Magwitch is a convict and Pip feels guilty at helping him as he is afraid of the police, by the end of the novel Pip has discovered Magwitch’s true character which enables him to value Magwitch rather than just see him as a criminal.

Pip desires wealth and status as a means of winning Estella's love and fitting into high society. Pip's expectations, however, lead him down a path of moral decay and betrayal as he becomes more focused on his own desires for wealth and less concerned with the well-being of those around him. Through the character of Pip Dickens suggests that the pursuit of wealth and status can have a corrupting influence on individuals and society as a whole, highlighting the importance of valuing morality and compassion over material possessions.

Great Expectations: A Short Summary

        Pip, a young boy of about seven, meets a convict in the churchyard near his home on the Kent marshes, near London. We later find out that this convict is Magwitch. Pip lives with his sister, Mrs. Joe, and her husband, Joe Gargery, who is the local blacksmith. The convict makes Pip bring him a file, to cut the irons off his leg, and some food. Pip steals the items and takes them to the convict who then disappears. As the food is missed from the house, soldiers looking for two escaped convicts arrive and seek the help of Joe to make new chains and leg irons. Pip does not betray the convict but he is found by the soldiers on the marshes, fighting with another escaped prisoner (who we later learn is called Compeyson). Magwitch is so determined not to let the other prisoner go that both men end up being caught. Sometime later Pip is invited to play at the large and intimidating Satis House with its strange inhabitant, Miss Havisham. She spends her days dressed in a faded wedding dress, surrounded by decaying wedding items such as a rotting cake, having been jilted at the altar. The rooms she occupies have not seen daylight for many years and neither has she. She has an adopted daughter, Estella, who is about Pip’s age. Miss Havisham makes Pip play cards with Estella. Estella delights in humiliating him, but he finds her beautiful anyway and his love for her grows even as he becomes an adult. A strange visitor to town gives Pip two pound notes and the man clearly has some connection with Pip’s convict because he stirs his drink with the file that Pip stole. Pip meets the Pockets at Miss Havisham’s and a strange boy makes Pip fight with him (later named as Herbert).

Miss Havisham pays Joe to take Pip on as his apprentice and he is sworn to the trade of blacksmith. Pip is not satisfied with his position in life and feels that he should be destined for greater things than being a blacksmith. To better himself, Pip attends a poorly run night class in the town where he meets Biddy, a bright girl of a similar age to himself. Mrs. Joe is attacked and injured so severely that she can no longer speak. Pip suspects Orlick, Joe’s assistant, who argued with his sister earlier the same day. A stranger arrives from London and announces himself as Mr Jaggers, a lawyer. Pip has seen him before at Satis House. He tells Pip that he will inherit a large property and that he must go to London immediately to begin his training in life as a gentleman. As a condition, Pip is not to seek to discover who his mysterious benefactor is, though he assumes that it is Miss Havisham. Pip goes to London, leaving Joe and Biddy behind.

In London, Pip begins his education with Matthew Pocket, Miss Havisham’s cousin, and becomes friends with his son Herbert. Jaggers is a cautious and clever lawyer who is always on his guard and Pip becomes friendly with his clerk, Wemmick. Pip gets into debt but arranges for Herbert to be helped in his career. Pip is asked to accompany Estella in London. This strengthens his belief that Miss Havisham is paying for him to be educated as a gentleman so that he will be suitable to marry Estella. Estella tries to warn him that she has no feelings for him. Mrs Joe eventually dies from the injuries inflicted by Orlick, and Pip attends her funeral. Joe’s subsequent visit to Pip in London is embarrassing for them both.

One night Pip has a surprise visitor: the convict from the beginning of the novel, Abel Magwitch. He is Pip’s secret benefactor and has returned illegally from Australia to see Pip. Pip is shocked because this destroys his dream that he and Estella will marry, and he is unnerved by the convict but feels he should shelter him. Pip decides to get Magwitch out of the country. Pip learns that the convict Magwitch fought with on the marshes, and whom Magwitch blames for most of his troubles, is called Compeyson. This is the man who tricked Miss Havisham and failed to turn up to marry her.

Pip learns that Estella will marry a brutal man called Bentley Drummle. Wemmick warns Pip that he and Magwitch are being watched. They hope to help Magwitch catch a foreign steamer and escape. Gradually Pip pieces together the information that Magwitch is Estella’s father and that Jaggers’s housekeeper, Molly, is her mother. Estella was placed in the care of Miss Havisham who adopted her.

After regretting her past mistakes and helping Pip to finance Herbert in business, Miss Havisham is injured when her wedding dress accidentally catches fire; she later dies from her injuries and Pip is badly burnt. Orlick plans to murder Pip having confessed to attacking Mrs Joe, but Herbert Pocket comes to the rescue. As Pip and Magwitch attempt to catch the ship, they are caught by the police. In the struggle, Compeyson is drowned. Magwitch is sentenced to death for returning to England but dies in prison. Pip tells him that his daughter is a beautiful lady and that he, Pip, loves her. Pip falls ill and is nursed by Joe. When he is well, he decides to go home and ask Biddy to marry him. He arrives to find she is marrying Joe. Pip accepts Herbert’s offer of a job with his firm in Cairo. He returns after eleven years and accidentally meets Estella on the grounds of Satis House. She is now a widow. Pip feels sure that he and Estella will never part again.

 

Character sketch of Maggie Tulliver

 

            Maggie Tulliver is the protagonist of The Mill on the Floss. When the novel begins, Maggie is a clever child. Eliot presents Maggie as more imaginative and interesting than the rest of her family and, sympathetically, in need of love. As a child Maggie is knowledgeable but likely to be forgetful. She acts rashly without considering the consequences. This is one of the results of her great sensitivity, for she cannot abide criticism or harsh judgments on her. By the same token, she never judges others harshly. She has none of Tom's arrogant self-righteousness. She is easily convinced that she has done wrong, despite the injury this causes to her sensitive soul. She is somewhat vain about her cleverness, but as this is never recognized by the people around her, it never turns into conceit.

            For Maggie, as for Tom, the bankruptcy is one of the most important events of her life; but it affects her differently. While it is a goad to Tom's ambition, it drives Maggie to renounce the world which treats her so harshly. At first, this takes the form of simple helping around home and giving up childish self-indulgence; but the discovery of Thomas à Kempis gives method and meaning to her renunciation. Nevertheless,, hers remains basically a childish revolt, a hope of avoiding pain by giving up pleasure.

            Maggie's concern for other people is the thing which breaks her free from this self-imposed exile. She begins to see Philip Wakem out of pity for him, and he reawakens her desire for life. This desire is one of the two most important threads in Maggie's character. It is a desire to have "more of everything," and it corresponds to the other characters' desire for property. Only Maggie and Philip show it in this form, as a longing for music, art, and life.

            Maggie's wish to avoid hurting people finally comes in opposition to her desires. Her failure to resolve that conflict leads her to the point of having to choose whom she will hurt. She sees it as a conflict of duty and passion, but that is only part of the problem. In her case, it becomes difficult to tell just where duty lies. At this crisis she reacts as she did to the bankruptcy: she banishes herself. Her reaction is consistent with what has been seen of her since childhood. It represents the fruit of the moral system she has been building for herself, a system based on the good of others. She carries it through with great determination, even when she finds that, as before, she has not foreseen many of the consequences.

 

Mill on the Floss as a Tragedy

 

            The novel opens with a foreshadowing of the tragic end, setting a sombre tone throughout the narrative. The Tulliver family’s economic hardships and the subsequent loss of the mill create a backdrop of adversity that intensifies as the story progresses. The tragic flaw, a common element in classical tragedies, is manifested in the characters’ inability to escape their predetermined destinies, despite their best intentions.

            Maggie Tulliver, the central character, embodies the tragic heroine archetype. Her passionate nature, intellectual curiosity, and defiance of societal expectations make her a compelling figure, but these qualities lead to her tragic downfall. Maggie’s romantic entanglements, particularly her ill-fated love for Stephen Guest, contribute to her ultimate alienation from the conservative society of St. Ogg’s. Her pursuit of personal happiness clashes with the prevailing moral standards, and the consequences are tragic for her and those around her.

            The novel also explores the theme of societal constraints and the impact of external forces on individual lives. Tom Tulliver, Maggie’s brother, represents the societal expectations placed on individuals, especially within the rigid class structure of 19th-century England. Tom’s inability to adapt to changing circumstances and his strict adherence to traditional values contribute to the tragedy. The economic struggles faced by the Tulliver family and their eventual ruin serve as a commentary on the harsh realities of societal expectations and monetary constraints, reinforcing the tragic nature of the narrative.

            Eliot skillfully weaves elements of Greek tragedy into the novel, incorporating themes of fate, nemesis, and the inevitable consequences of human actions. The river, a prominent symbol throughout the story, becomes a metaphor for the inescapable flow of destiny. Maggie’s tragic end, drowning in the flood, is foreshadowed by the recurring image of the river’s power and unpredictability. The novel’s structural elements further accentuate the inevitability of tragedy, with the narrative unfolding chronologically toward the predestined conclusion.

            The character of Mr. Tulliver, the patriarch of the family, also contributes to the tragic dimension of the novel. His pride and stubbornness, particularly in his legal battles, lead to the family’s financial ruin. Mr. Tulliver’s tragic flaw lies in his inability to navigate the complexities of the legal system and his unwavering determination to uphold his honour, regardless of the consequences. His downfall sets the stage for the subsequent tragedies that befall the Tulliver siblings, creating a cascading effect that underscores the inevitability of their fate.

            Eliot’s exploration of morality and societal norms adds depth to the tragic elements of the novel. Maggie’s internal conflict between her innate sense of morality and the societal expectations imposed upon her reflects the broader theme of individual autonomy versus societal constraints. The tragic tension arises from the characters’ struggle to reconcile their personal desires with the moral expectations of a society that often proves unforgiving.

            In conclusion, “The Mill on the Floss” stands as a tragic novel that masterfully weaves together elements of classical tragedy with a keen exploration of societal norms and individual agency. The inevitability of the characters’ fates, the tragic flaws that contribute to their downfall, and the overarching theme of societal constraints collectively define the tragic nature of the narrative. George Eliot’s rich characterizations, nuanced exploration of morality, and skilful incorporation of classical elements make “The Mill on the Floss” a timeless portrayal of the complexities inherent in the human experience, earning its place as a classic tragic work in literature.

Summary: Song of a Dream

         ‘Song of a Dream’, written by Sarojini Naidu, is a Romantic lyric. The poem describes a dream that expresses the speaker’s wish for an ideal world of Truth, Love and Peace.

The poem has two stanzas- the first describes a vision and the second describes what the speaker has done there. In a dream of night, the speaker stood alone in a magical wood. Visions sprang up like poppy. In that enchanted land, the spirits of Truth were the singing birds. The spirits of Love were the shining stars and the spirits of Peace were the flowing streams. The speaker felt the stars- the spirits of Love- gather around her delicate youth. She heard the song of Truth. She quenched her thirst from the streams of Peace

The most obvious theme of the poem is the dream of an ideal society where truth, love and peace prevail. It can be the speaker’s concept of independent India. Capitalizing the words – Truth, Love and Peace- suggests sublimation of these values. The dreamland is without anything ‘wild’ about it.

The poem has two septets each rhyming ‘aabbccd’. It resembles a sonnet in the number of lines and its romantic content. However, its stanza pattern and rhyme scheme are not those of regular English sonnets Sarojini Naidu’s poem shares the legacy of Romantic poetry and it expresses a dream of an ideal and perfect society of truth, love and peace.

Coolie: As a Social Tragedy

 Munoo, the main character of the novel Coolie is a victim of the exploitation of the poor by the rich in the early twentieth-century India. The novel concentrates on social evils. The tragic denial of human life to Munoo is the result of poverty, starvation, hunger and degradation. Anand's writing displays the violation of human rights of the oppressed and suppressed group of people during the pre-independent India.

Poor men are exploited by the capitalists. People are poor only because there is capitalism in the world. Munoo inherits from his father only poverty. He had heard of how the landlord of his village had seized his father's five acres of land because the interest on the mortgage covering the unpaid rent had not been forthcoming when the rains had been scanty and the harvests bad. And he knew how his father had died a slow death bitterness and disappointment and left his mother a penniless beggar to support a child in arms.

Poverty is Munoo's greatest curse. It is the root cause of his tragedy and also of several others like him. Poverty compels Munoo to be a domestic servant at the age of fourteen and to be exploited even by his uncle. The sub-accountant's wife, Bibi Uttam Kaur, underfeeds, nags and humiliates him at Sham Nagar mainly because he is a poor orphan boy. He is often abused or beaten. "There must be only two kinds of people in the world, rich and the poor," he concludes. His misery at Daulatur and his disease and drudgery at Simla are due to poverty.

The exploitation is presented on a much larger scale in the Bombay phase of Munoo's life. Here big industry and its owners are the forces of exploitation. Munoo takes up services in Sir George White's Cotton Mill and is exposed to the full force of industrial and colonial exploitation.

The final act of Munoo's tragedy commences when Mrs. Mainwaring, whose car knocks him down, takes him to Simla. As she wants a servant, his own wishes in the matter, of course, are of no consequence. She makes him her boy-servant, her rickshaw-puller and there are hints that he is exploited sexually also.

Capitalism, Colonialism and Industrialism are not the only forces which exploit Munoo and his like. Communalism too lends a hand. A worker's strike is easily broken by casual rumours of communal disturbances which divert the wrath of the labourers from the mill to the religious factions among themselves. The fires of communal hatred are further fanned by politicians, who have their own axe to grind. In the whole process, the exploited labourer loses his job, his livelihood and sometimes even his life.

The narration of Coolie is vigorous and sensitive. But Anand is quite choosy in matters of episodes. He has narrated only those episodes which show Munoo's economic exploitation and poverty. The whole life of Munoo is pathetic. The last scene of the novel is deeply pathetic. It is Munoo's death which relieves him from social cruelty, exploitation and poverty. The young man dies of tuberculosis and thereby ends his struggle for existence.

Coolie is a novel written with a purpose. It is a powerful indictment of modern capitalistic society and its tragic exploitation of the poor. The hero of the novel wants to live but the society does not allow him to live. He dies of exploitation. Humanism is the answer to the problem.

This novel is a tragic epic in prose. It is a social tragedy of the common man. Munoo is a tragic hero in this epic. His death is a symbol of the tragedy of millions of workers and coolies not in India but all over the world. It is not an individual tragedy but universal in its scope. In Sham Nagar and Daulatpur, Munoo maintains his identity and individuality but there are clear signs that it is gradually decreasing. In Bombay, he becomes a part of the toiling, struggling and starving masses. In this way, Anand universalized the individual tragedy of Munoo.

There are social forces which are responsible for the tragic end of Munoo. Actually, this novel is a study of the tragic effect of cruel inhuman social forces on an individual. These forces regularly contribute to Munoo’s tragedy. Moreover, he is conscious of the fact that these forces have been working against him since his childhood. Extreme poverty forces him to leave his native village at the age of fourteen. He never succeeds to return his village and at the age of sixteen, he dies in Simla. These social forces are beyond the control of Munoo. He has no choice before him. His destiny from the beginning is controlled by the social forces which victimize him. Munoo is an undeserved sufferer. He has done nothing to tolerate these tortures. His only fault is that he is an orphan and poor. He has no power to struggle with the evils of an exploiting economic social system. He silently surrenders and is cruelly crushed.  It is to the credit of Anand that raises the poor small boy not only to the status of the hero of this great tragedy but also imparts him grandeur and dignity of epical heights. 

Summary of 'The Solitary Reaper'

 William Wordsworth was a great lover of nature. He admired simple rustic life; we can find common people like peasants and shepherds figuring in his poems. ‘The Solitary Reaper’ describes the poet’s, feelings on hearing an enchanting song of a country girl. This song touches his heart. It makes him spellbound. The song remains a dear memory for the poet long afterwards

This poem is a beautiful description of the poet’s personal experience. Once, while passing through the hills, a melodious song catches his attention. He sees a young girl reaping and binding grain in a field. She is all alone and is singing a sad song. The poet stops there to listen to her music. He makes no noise so that she is not being disturbed.

The poet finds the song very enchanting and melodious. The entire valley is flooded with her beautiful voice. The music is sweeter than the song of a cuckoo or a nightingale. The poet then says that no nightingale could have sung so sweetly to welcome and soothe the tired travelers of the Arabian deserts as the solitary reaper. Her song is sweeter than the song of the cuckoobird that disturbs the seas’ silence in the distant islands.

The poet cannot understand the theme of this reaper’s song as the dialect is quite unfamiliar to him. So, he makes some guesses. Perhaps, she is singing about some tragic event of the past or some familiar event of her life, like the loss of parting from the dear ones. It could have been about some battles that were fought long ago.

Then the poet moves on to say that he does not understand the theme of the song, the music of her song and the melodious voice leaves the poet spellbound. He stands motionless to listen to the girl’s song. It seemed as if the song was never-ending. The poet listens to her as she reaps and binds the grains bending over the sickle. Then the poet goes up the hill but he carries the music of the melodious song with him. The song leaves an everlasting impression on his mind. The poet also suggests that the appeal of music is universal.  

Kamala Das as a Confessional Poet

            Kamala Das is a modern Indian poet who emphasizes on various issues relating to modern society and its impacts on her life. Her poetry is confessional and autobiographical. She reveals extremely confidential and private matters of her life. It is the poetry of introspection and self-analysis. Here we find the best expression of feminine sensibility. The poetess expresses her need for love with astonishing frankness and openness.

            As a true confessional poet, she takes her readers into confidence about her private life. She shows with remarkable frankness the wrongs, injustice and male-dominated humiliation that she suffered in a male-dominated world. She has candidly described her traumatic experiences of lovemaking and of the sexual act. We can easily find the tone of confession in her poems like 'The Sunshine Cat', 'The Invitation', and 'The Looking Glass'.

            Kamala Das is a poet of love and sexual relationship. Love and sex form the main theme in her poetry. Her poetry is largely an expression of her frustration in love. She always speaks of her unfulfilled love and expresses her need for love. In' The Sunshine Cat' the poet abuses her husband because he never loved her and never used her properly. She calls him a selfish and cowardly man who is a ruthless watcher of her sexual acts with other men. This frustration of her love boils over in poems like' The Invitation' and ' The Looking Glass'.

            In fact, the poetry of Kamala Das is devoted to her confessions of her sex life. Sexual humiliation becomes a central theme in her poetry. She goes to the extreme in her frank treatment of sex. In 'The Looking Glass she says: 

Gift him all,

 Gift him what makes you a woman,

 the scent of Long hair, the musk of sweat between the breasts,

 The warm shock of menstrual blood,

 and all your Endless female hunger. 

Kamala Das has added a new dimension to the poetry of love and sex. Her frank admission and bold treatment of her private life make her a great confessional poet. In this context, she can be compared with Gauri Deshpande.

             Kamala is a poet of protest also. She rebels against the conventions, traditions and accepted norms of society. Her protest is directed against injustices and exploitation. She made her poetry a vehicle for the expression of her resentment against male domination over women. In 'The Sunshine Cat' she writes in a strong tone of protest: 

Being selfish And a coward, 

the husband who neither loved nor Used her, 

but was a ruthless watcher........

            Kamala Das' poetry is a frank and straightforward expression of feminine sensibility. She revolts against the exploitation of women. She expresses anger against the male dominance in the society. She attempted to establish her identity as woman through her poems. At the same time, she tried to impart an identity to Indian women. Thus her poetry signals the advent of a new phenomenon in Indo-Anglicana poetry.

            Kamala Das' command over the English language is remarkable. She cultivated a style that is characterized by colloquial simplicity and clarity. Her poetry reveals a mastery of phrases and control over rhythm. In the choice of words, Kamala Das exercises special care. The words effortlessly come to her and become one with emotion. She is a poet in the confessional mode. Thus her diction is most often colloquial. Her poetry abounds in imagery. Her images are suggestive and functional. She offers imagery in dealing with her favourite subjects like love and sex. Thus it is not boring and monotonous.

            Thus Kamala Das is a great poet. She directed the path of women poets in modern English poetry. She has certainly made a name for herself with her craftsmanship. No doubt, her poetry is autobiographical and confessional. She reminds us of Anne Sexton and Sylvia Plath. The charge of obscurity and obsession with sex is groundless. Being a confessional poet, she expresses her own emotions.

Summary: My mistress' eyes are nothing like the sun

     The sonnet begins with the speaker comparing parts of his mistress’ body to beautiful objects. He finds that her body is less attractive than the thing to which it’s being compared. For example, he writes that her eyes aren’t as bright as the sun, and her breath isn’t like perfume—in fact, it “reeks.” These comparisons at first seem to paint a portrait of a woman who is not very appealing. She is lacklustre in comparison to the beauty of roses, snow, or music, which implies that the speaker might be able to find more beauty and pleasure in the everyday things that surround him than in the woman he loves. The comparisons, in other words, seem to degrade her value.

    The poem’s final two lines cement the interpretation that the comparisons are not meant to be degrading to the speaker’s mistress or to the love that they share. When the speaker claims that he finds “his love” as beautiful as any other woman “belied with false compare,” he’s making the point that no one’s eyes are as beautiful as the sun and everyone’s breath smells kind of bad, and that, therefore, such comparisons are not actually a useful way to think about beauty or love. The speaker concludes that, even if his mistress cannot be credibly compared to the typical imagery of love poems, his love is still real and valuable, and his mistress is still beautiful. In this way, Shakespeare suggests that love and beauty should not be understood through abstract comparisons, but rather should be valued for being real and flawed.

Summary of 'To My Native Land'

 

In the poem, ‘To My Native Land’ Derozio personifies India and talks to her in a monologue. Derozio talks about the glorious past of India. This shows he was unhappy with the British rule in India. The poet expresses a sense of personal loss in the downfall of his country, India. Addressing India, the poet says that in the old days, India was worshipped as a goddess. The poet asks where that glory and splendour have disappeared. He regrets the fact that his motherland has now been reduced to the position of a slave of the British Empire. The internal weaknesses have brought the country slavery.

There was a time when the country soared like an eagle in the skies. It was a time when India was renowned for its highly developed civilization and extensive cultural traditions. Men of learning from all over the world came to India to learn and advance their civilisations. The poet portrays that during British rule, the nation had its wings cut. It is grovelling in the sand because of this. It represents the fact that the British government shut down India's development avenues.

The poet says that he has no wreath of flowers to offer the country.  But he will dig into the past and he will try to sing of some parts of that great history which is no longer available to the younger generation. At the end of the poem the poet demonstrates his selfless patriotic feelings by saying that he expects no worldly rewards for his efforts to regain the glory of his country. He wishes to have only the loving blessing of his Motherland.

Summary of the Poem Sita

 

“Sita” appears in Toru Dutt’s Ancient Ballads and Legends of Hindustan. Though the title suggests that the poem is about goddess Sita actually it is based on the reaction of three children after listening to the story of the second exile of Sita.

The poem starts as three happy children (the poet, her sister and brother) are eagerly waiting to hear a story from their mother. They are sitting in a dark room. The story begins with a description of natural beauty. The mother tells the children about a dense forest. The forest is so thick that even the rays of sunlight cannot enter into it. In the centre place of the forest, there is a clear spot where very large flowers are blooming on creepers that embrace tall trees. Apart from these, there is a beautiful lake which has clean and clear water and is quiet. The white swans swim here making the sound of wings moving quickly from an area full of bushes. The peacocks also dance with joy. There are even herds of wild deer racing among them. The patches are shining bright because of the yellow grains which are waving. The blue smoke of the strange altar is spreading light to the forest.

In this forest, the great poet Valmiki lives in peace. In the hut of that great sage, a beautiful lady is also living. The lady is weeping; perhaps there is a great cause of her shading tears. The three children also begin to shed tears. It is an old story, very ancient, a short narrative poem on the sad incidents of Sita’s life. Dutt says the impact of the story is going to stay with them until the next morning. In the end, she asks about when those children sat around their mother to listen to the story. In reply, she clarifies that this is an autobiographical poem and those children are none other than the poet herself and her siblings Aru and Abju.

Characteristics of American Literature

            American literature is a diverse and dynamic body of literary works that reflects the cultural, historical, and social experiences of the United States. It encompasses many themes, styles, and genres, representing the complexities and contradictions of American society and the human condition. Some key aspects that describe American literature are:    

Cultural Diversity: American literature embraces the diverse voices and experiences of various ethnicities, races, and cultural backgrounds. It explores the struggles, triumphs, and contributions of different communities, including Native Americans, African Americans, Hispanic Americans, Asian Americans, and immigrants worldwide.

Individualism and the American Dream: Themes of individualism, personal freedom, and the pursuit of the American Dream are recurrent in American literature. Many works explore the idea that hard work, determination, and opportunity can lead to success and upward mobility.

Regionalism: American literature often captures the distinct characteristics and cultures of different regions within the United States. Writers draw inspiration from specific areas' landscapes, dialects, and traditions, highlighting the country's diverse geography and local identities.

Social Criticism and Realism: American literature frequently engages in social criticism, exposing social injustices and addressing societal issues. Realism is a prevalent literary style that seeks to present an accurate portrayal of everyday life and human experiences.

Historical Context: American literature reflects the historical events and periods that have shaped the nation, including the Colonial era, the American Revolution, the Civil War, the Great Depression, and the Civil Rights Movement. These historical contexts often influence the themes and messages conveyed in literary works.

Exploration of Identity: American literature grapples with questions of identity, including national, racial, gender, and cultural identity. It delves into the complexities of self-discovery and the search for meaning.

Innovation and Experimentation: American literature is known for its innovative spirit and willingness to experiment with new forms, styles, and themes. Writers have pushed the boundaries of traditional storytelling and literary conventions.

Representation of Human Struggles and Triumphs: American literature explores the human experience, portraying characters facing personal challenges, moral dilemmas, and moments of resilience and transformation.

Literary Movements: American literature has been shaped by various literary movements, including Romanticism, Transcendentalism, Realism, Modernism, the Harlem Renaissance, and Postmodernism, among others.

Global Impact: American literature has had a significant global influence, with many American authors becoming internationally renowned and their works translated into multiple languages.

Overall, American literature reflects the nation's complex history, values, ideals, and societal changes, making it a rich and meaningful body of work that continues to inspire, provoke thought, and resonate with readers worldwide.

WATER: THE ELIXIR OF LIFE --Question-Answers

 

Que. 1 Why do you think water is the true Elixir of life? How has water been a powerful influence in the life of humankind and in the rise of civilization?

Ans. Water is the true elixir of life. This is a common substance. So, we take it granted in our everyday life. It is the most wonderful thing on Earth. It continues to play leading role in the drama of life on Earth. Water is the basis of all life. Every animal and every plant contains a large proportion of water in its body. The moisture of the soil is equally important for plants and trees.  The conservation and utilisation of water is fundamental for human welfare. One of the most remarkable facts about water is its power to carry silt suspension. Our agriculture depends on seasonal rainfall. So, collection and utilization of rain water is significant. Water is the commonest of the liquids. These uncommon properties are responsible for its unique power to maintain animal and plant life.

Que.2. write about the power and beauty of the element, water.

Ans. Water is the true elixir of life. It is the basis of life on Earth. Every animal and plant contains water. It is necessary for their life. Our agriculture is dependent on water.  To explain the power of water C.V. Raman has given an example. One day he was standing on the line which separates the Libyan Desert from the valley of the Nile in Egypt. One side was having a sea of sand without a speck of green or a single living thing. On the other side was one of the greatest, most fertile and densely populated areas on the Earth. It was full of life and vegetation. Water has changed the scene. One of the most remarkable facts about water is its power to carry silt in suspension. The flow of water plays a great role in the geographical process. It can sometimes play a destructive role and wash away the soil. Great tracts of land have been formed by silt deposited by water. The problem of soil erosion is caused by water. Vast areas of land could be turned into fertile or infertile. This is the power and beauty of water.

Que.3. How does soil erosion occur and what are the chief factors that cause it?

Ans. The problem of soil erosion is very important, in many countries and especially in many parts of India. Soil erosion occurs in steps; the earliest may easily pass unnoticed. In the later stages, the cutting up and washing away of the soil results in the formation of deep gullies and narrow rallies. This makes agriculture impossible. The sudden burst of excessively heavy rain results in a large run of surplus water which causes soil erosion. The slope of land, removal of the natural protective coat of vegetation, ruts for the flow of water with speed and no check to such flow are also the causes of soil erosion.

Que.4. What are the usual measures used to check soil erosion?

Ans. The measures that can be used to check soil erosion are terracing of the land, construction of bunds to check the flow of water, the practice of contour (outline) cultivation and the planting of proper plants. The prevention of soil erosion would help to save water and keep the water where it is wanted. Vast areas of land could be turned into fertile and prosperous countries by well-planned action. The systematic planting of suitable trees in every possible place is most urgent in India. They would check soil erosion and conserve the rainfall of the country.

Que.5. What is C.V. Raman’s suggestion regarding controlling the movement of water to harness it for useful purposes?

Ans. C.V. Raman gives the example of rain-fed tanks which play a very vital role in south Indian agriculture. In Mysore, much of the rice is grown under them. The colour of the water in rain-fed tanks changes according to the land from which the water comes. Swiftly flowing water can carry large and heavy particles. The finest particles remain floating in the water. Large areas of land can be converted into fertile land due to silt-laden water. The collection and utilization of rainwater are significant because our Indian agriculture depends on rainfall. Much of the rainwater flows down into the river and the sea. So a large quantity of water is lost. The proper use of this flowing water is a great national problem. Planting trees is an urgent need in India. They would help to save the rainwater of the country from flowing away to waste.

Trial Scene of Merchant of Venice

This is the most important and interesting scene of the play. In the beginning of the scene, we see the Duke is upset about the penalty, but cannot find any lawful way of freeing Antonio from his bond. Shylock enters the court. The Duke tells him that all the men gathered there expect him to pardon Antonio and forgive the debt. Shylock replies that he has already sworn by his religion that he will take his pound of flesh from Antonio. Bassanio then comes forward and offers Shylock the six thousand ducats as repayment for the loan. Shylock tells him he would not take it.

The Duke threatens to dismiss the court without settling the suit brought by Shylock if Doctor Bellario fails to arrive. Nerissa enters dressed as a man and informs the Duke that Bellario has sent a letter to him. The letter from Bellario recommends a young and educated doctor to help the Duke to settle the case. The Duke orders him to be brought in, and Portia enters dressed as a man, named Balthazar.

Portia tells the Duke that she has thoroughly studied the case. She asks Antonio if he confesses to signing the contract. He does, and Portia then says that Shylock therefore must be merciful. She delivers a short speech on mercy, but Shylock ignores it and demands the contract be fulfilled. She says that Shylock has the right to claim a pound of flesh from next to Antonio's heart according to the bond. Antonio's bosom is laid bare.  Just as Shylock is about to start cutting again, Portia says that the bond does not give him permission to shed Antonio's blood. Shylock knows that he cannot cut the flesh without drawing blood, and gets agree to take the money instead. However, Portia says that he has lost his right to get the money. The Shylock decides to withdraw his case. Portia tells Shylock to remain in the court. She says that Venice has a further law which says that if any foreigner tries to kill a Venetian, then half of his property will be given to the Venetian against whom he plotted, and the state will receive the other half. In addition, the foreigner's life will be in the hands of the Duke, who may decide to do whatever he wants. Shylock is forced to kneel on the ground before the court, but the Duke pardons his life before he can beg for mercy. And Antonio is saved by the cleverness of Portia.

This scene is a masterpiece and the most enjoyable in the whole play. It is the scene that converts the play into a happy ending play.

Question -Answers of 'Tolerance'

 1.     How does Forster draw a comparison between ‘love’ and ‘tolerance’ as a desirable state of mind? What arguments does he put forth?

                                             Or

             What is the theme of the essay ‘Tolerance’?

Ans. Love, according to E.M. Forster, is a great force in private life. It is the greatest of all things. But it does not work in public affairs. It has been tried again and again and it has always failed. He believes that it is absurd, unreal, and even dangerous to suggest that nations, business concerns marketing boards or people of whom one has never even heard may love one another. It is indulging in vague sentimentalism to expect Germans and the British, who had been fighting during the war, to love each other. But, in the post-war world, they have to live with each other. They must learn to tolerate each other because one cannot exterminate the other. Forster further says that one can only love what one knows personally. The world is full of people. And one cannot know much. Tolerance, in Forster’s opinion, is ideal in public affairs, and in the rebuilding of civilization. It is much less dramatic and emotional. It may be called very dull, even boring. It merely means putting up with people and being able to stand things. But this, says Forster, is the quality most needed after the war, for it will enable different races, classes, and interests to settle down together to the work of reconstruction.

2.      What are the two solutions to the problem of living with people one doesn’t like? Is there a third solution? If so, why doesn’t the author accept it?

One solution is to segregate people one doesn’t like and kill them. The other solution is to put up with such people as well as one can. The first is what the Nazis did and the second is the way of the democracies. Forster’s own preference is for the second solution. He sees no other foundation for the post-war world. Most people will say that men and nations must start to love one another. Forster, however, strongly disagrees with this solution simply because it is not possible. It has been tried again and again and it has always failed. One can only love what one knows. And one cannot love what one knows and does not like.

 

3.      What kind of negative virtues are desirable? What positive phrases does the author find disgusting? Why?

                                         Or  

What does Forster say about Tolerance?

Tolerance is a very dull, boring, and negative virtue according to Forster. Yet this is the quality most needed after the war. The post-war world needs negative virtues like not being huffy, touchy, irritable, and revengeful. Forster finds positive militant phrases like ‘I will purge this nation’, and ‘I will clean up this city,’ terrifying and disgusting. He explains that when there were fewer people in this world, these phrases might not have mattered. However, when one nation is mixed up with another when one city cannot be organically separated from its neighbours, they have become horrifying. Today, if such militant ideals are sought to be put into practice, there will be tremendous damage both in terms of life and material.

Question-Answers of 'Great Books Born Out of Great Minds'

 

1. What is the culture of excellence, according to Dr Kalam?

Ans. Dr Kalam begins his speech by talking about the culture of excellence. According to the author, excellence does not come by accident. It is a process, where individuals (or an organization or a nation) continuously strive to better themselves. They set the performance standards themselves, they work on their dreams with focus are prepared to take calculated risks, and do not get deterred by failures as they move towards the realization of their dreams.

2. What are Dr Kalam’s findings on his interactions with youngsters?

Ans: Dr Kalam says that he has so far met 16 million young men. Interacting with the youngsters is like living in a world of stories. They want to become astronauts, pilots, soldiers, doctors, sailors, and so on. They live in their own world of imagination and fantasies. After growing up they read novels, watch films and play. Dr Kalam felt that there is an author in the mind of every person.

3. According to Dr Kalam, what influence does a story have on our mind?

Ans: According to Dr Kalam, stories help us navigate life’s complex social problems, just as flight simulators prepare pilots for difficult situations. Storytelling ensures our survival. Imagination is a remarkable component of storytelling that teleports human beings mentally into an alternative world. Imagination gives us, in other words, the near-magical ability to experience what we did not actually experience. A story is an 'a thing that does' rather than ‘a thing that is’. It is a tool with measurable utility rather than an object for aesthetic admiration. Attention is the reward that listeners bestow on the storyteller. This makes storytelling a central component of leadership.

4. Discuss the negative aspects of storytelling.

Ans: According to the author, storytelling has a negative side also. It exposes human beings to conspiracy theories, advertisements, and narratives about ourselves that are not completely true. Everything depends on the story reader. Thoughts like right, wrong, sin, good, duty, responsibility, love, hate, all of these depend on who is reading the story.

5. What are Dr Kalam’s views on Goethe, Shakespeare and Valmiki?

Ans.: Dr. Kalam praised Goethe, Shakespeare, and Valmiki. Johann Wolfgang Goethe, mind evolved Faust, the great German epic. Shakespeare could see the past, the present, and the future through his great musical plays. Whereas, the great Indian epic master Valmiki evolved the story of the Ramayana, which stands for the past, the present, and the future. In the biographies of Goethe and Shakespeare, they claimed that their minds were actuated by the Life Force. They claim that every human being has intellectual energy, this Life Force. Valmiki stated that a divine force helped him evolve the Ramayana.

6. What message does Dr Kalam give at the end of his speech?

Ans.: At the end of his speech Dr Kalam gave the example of three great writers, namely, Goethe, Shakespeare, and Valmiki. All these writers had a powerful energy of creation in their minds. This divine energy and Life force is present in human beings. He advised the young authors to realize this energy assemble it, concentrate and use it for imagination, and create great works.

Short Summary of the play 'Streetcar Named Desire'

 

The play begins as Blanche, a teacher from Mississippi, arrives in New Orleans to stay with her sister even though both sisters are different from each other. The reason for her arrival is nervousness impacting her ability to work and the loss of her ancestral home in the Old South, Belle Reve.

The conflict begins to arise between Blanche and her sister’s husband, Stanley, as she is critical of the couple’s living quarters and of his Polish heritage. On the other hand, Stanley immediately dislikes Blanche as he fears she has cheated him out of the family inheritance. Further conflict begins during a drunken poker game in which Stanley hits his wife. It is implied that this violence occurs regularly, but it is not seriously addressed because of their animalistic sexual desires.

The next day Blanche tries to convince Stella to leave her husband, but her sister dismisses the idea. Stanley, however, overhears the conversation and is enraged. He begins to taunt Blanche about her past and she begins to look increasingly upset. Blanche is left alone during the day and meets a young paperboy whom she kisses, although she is waiting for a man named Mitch to take her on a date. During her outing with Mitch, Blanche behaves strangely and uneasily, unnerved by Stanley’s threats. She reveals to Mitch the tragedy of her first love.

Time passes and it is finally Blanche’s birthday. While Stella prepares dinner for everyone, Stanley reveals elements of Blanche’s past to her, such as her numerous sexual relationships and the reason she lost her job (an affair with a student). Stanley has also told Mitch about Blanche and, for this reason; he refuses to attend her birthday celebration. Stanley then gives Blanche a one-way ticket back to Laurel as a birthday present.

Stella is shocked over such a cruel gift and looks like she might consider leaving Stanley. However, Stella's labour pain begins and interrupts their argument. When they have left Blanche alone, she starts to drink heavily but is interrupted by Mitch, who wants to confront the allegations about her. Mitch then tries to assault Blanche as the statements about her sexual habits are confirmed, but she shouts 'fire' in hopes of attracting attention.

Stanley returns home from the hospital and finds a very drunk Blanche. The pair confront each other until Blanche tries to escape from his presence by smashing a bottle, but he carries her to the bedroom and rapes her.

More time passes; Stella and her neighbour wait for Blanche to leave the bathroom. They discuss how Stella cannot accept Blanche's revelation about what Stanley did to her that night. As Blanche enters the room she seems fragile as she talks about her delusions and fantasies. A doctor and a nurse arrive to try and take Blanche to an institution but she struggles and fights back until she is finally subdued. As Blanche leaves, Stella cries with her newborn child in her arms.

 

Dream Children : A Reverie (Question-Answers)

 

Ø  Why the essay is entitled “Dream Children”?

Ans: Charles Lamb entitled the essay “Dream Children” because he never married and naturally never became the father of any children. The children he speaks of in the essay were actually the creations of his imagination or fancy.

Ø  Who was Field? How does Lamb present her before his dream children?

Ans: Field, a pseudonym for the actual person, was Lamb’s grandmother. Lamb presents her as an ideal grandmother in an imaginary and inflated way before his “dream children”—she was an extremely pious, fearless, and compassionate person besides being the best dancer in the area in her youth.

Ø  Why the essay is entitled “A Reverie”?

Ans: The essay is subtitled as a ‘reverie’ because Lamb never married and so he never had children. In the essay, he created an imaginary picture of a happy conjugal life—a picture that finally dissolves into nothing as he comes back to reality.

Ø  How does Lamb present his brother John L—?

Ans: Lamb’s elder brother, John L—in his youth was a handsome, high-spirited, strong, and fearless person. He loved Lamb very much. But subsequently, in his old age, he became lame-footed and spent the rest of his life in utter hopelessness, irritation, and pain.

Ø  Whom does Lamb refer to as “faithful Bridget” by side?

Ans: Lamb had a sister, Mary Lamb, who did not marry since she had attacks of insanity. She has been referred to here as “faithful Bridget” because she never married and was Lamb’s only companion in his life. At the sudden breakdown of his reverie, he finds her seated by his side.

Ø  What, according to you, is the most striking feature of the essay and why?

Ans: The chief characteristic feature of the essay is the author’s mingling of pathos and humour. Lamb begins the essay in a somewhat deceptive fashion, describing the incidents, full of humour. But gradually he reduces the tone towards the end describing the tragedies of his personal life.          

Ø  How does Lamb present the autobiographical elements in the essay?

Ans: Dream Children is a personal essay. Lamb presents the characters and incidents from his own life—the sketches of his grandmother, Field, his brother—John Lamb, his sister—Mary Lamb, and his tragic love affairs with Ann Simmons. But Lamb is always playing with facts and fiction and transforms the real into the literary.

Ø  How does Lamb show his knowledge of child psychology?

Ans: It is surprising that without ever having children Lamb had an acute sense of how children react to the happenings in the world of the adults. By deceptively referring to the meticulous reactions of his dream children, he succeeds in catching the reader immediately. The aesthetic impact of the essay becomes more effective for this reason.

Ø  “But John L—(or James Elia) was gone forever”—Who was James Elia? Why does the author say this?

Ans: At the end of his daydreaming Lamb coming back to reality finds his sister (Bridget) Mary Lamb by his side, but he realizes and remembers that his brother James Elia or John Lamb had died and would no more be with them. So he laments his loss thus.

Ø  How does Lamb record Alice’s reactions to his story-telling?

Ans: While listening to Lamb’s personal tale, Alice reacts first by spreading her hands when Lamb says how good, religious, and graceful person Field had been. Alice reacts to it either in great astonishment or by putting up some pious gesture. She also cries out When Lamb talks about his elder brother’s pain and death.

Ø  How does Lamb record John’s reactions to his story-telling?

Ans: At the information of the great house being stripped of its ornaments John smiled, which suggested the foolishness of the work. He was trying to look brave and impress upon his father that he would not have been afraid of the ghosts like his father. At the end of the story, when Lamb was talking of his elder brother’s pain and death, John, like Alice, began to cry.

Hindu Way of Life: Critical Summary

 

            S. Radhakrishnan was an Indian philosopher and statesman. He was the first Vice President of India and the second President of India. He is one of India's best and most influential twentieth-century scholars of comparative religion and philosophy. He had always defended Hindu culture against uninformed Western criticism and had symbolized the pride of Indians in their own intellectual traditions. He believed that Hinduism is a scientific religion based on facts apprehended via intuition or religious experience. His philosophical approach is marked by a range of thought and depth of perception. He does not think of Hinduism in isolation but in the modern context. He emphasizes the relevance of the value of Hinduism in a world that is by conflict of ideas.

            His work “The Hindu View of Life” is a relic in the world of philosophy and it is based on the Upton Lectures delivered at Manchester College, Oxford. It is his analysis of the basic concepts underlying the Hindu attitude to life. It is divided into four chapters.

            The first chapter “Religious Experience, Its Nature and Concept “gives us a vivid account of the essential characteristics of Hinduism. Actually the term 'Hindu' was geographical and did not refer to a religion. It is derived from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, the historic local name for the Indus River in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent. It refers to the land of the aboriginal tribes and many other communities with different systems of worship and belief who live across the River Indus. By the end of the 12th century and early 13^th century, Hindustan emerged as a popular alternative name for India, meaning the "land of Hindus". As per Hinduism Religion is a felt inner experience of the entire personality. Religious experience is of a Self-certifying character. Religious faith is not a matter of blind acceptance religious experience is stated and confirmed in intellectual terms.

            Faith is a matter of spiritual conviction. Hinduism admits points of view other than its own. Devine relation is not the prerogative of any individual or community. It is available to all. This truth has been recognized in Hinduism. Hinduism does not characterize ideas about God as true or false. It recognizes the fact that mankind seeks god at different levels and in different directions. It is appreciative of human effort to seek God. Hinduism has graded different levels of worship. Hindu saints see God in the self and not in images. Temples and religious centers alone should not be counted to be the places of prayer and worship. They should become capable of providing spiritual direction to the Hindus.

            In the second chapter “Conflict of Religions: the Hindu Attitude” Radhakrishnan explains how every group within the Hindu fold is allowed to enjoy its freedom and preserve its individuality. It is not the group that we belong to that counts. What matters are we and our evolution. Hinduism calls upon everyone to think clearly and steadily about the ultimate purpose and mystery of life. It does not seek to interfere with the individual’s way of thinking .it makes allowances for errors of judgment and weakness of understanding. It does not lay down a single uniform method nor does it seek to establish a stereotyped system of belief and worship.

            A known fact of Hinduism is that it has no common creed and it has not prescribed a uniform system of worship. The early Aryans' worship consisted of the worship of forces of Nature. This gives a way to imagine worship. Hindu worship is primarily an individual act rather than a communal one, as it involves making personal offerings to the deity. Worshippers repeat the names of their favourite gods and goddesses and repeat mantras. Water, fruit, flowers, and incense are offered to god.

             The third chapter “Hindu Dharma” is a discussion of the two aspects of Hinduism, the philosophical and the practical. There are two sides to Hinduism, the philosophical and the practical. Some objections to the conceptions of Hindu epics are raised. Ethical system and relations are dismissed as irrelevant in view of the doctrine of Maya which repudiates the reality of the world. Radhakrishnan says that the Upanishads emphasize the relative reality of the phenomenal world. All things in the world are of value as they contribute to the realization of the self. Eswara (Lord Shiva) held the world as Maya. The real will qualify to be called real only when it is exempt from all change and is ever-enduring. The ultimate purpose of life is liberation from the cycles – birth –death – rebirth.

             Coming to the practical side of Hinduism, Radhakrishna says that Hinduism is merely a way of life rather than from a thought. Life according to Hinduism is regulated against a four-fold scale -Dharma, (righteousness), -Artha, (wealth)- Kaama (Desire)- and Moksha,(Spiritual Freedom). It will be seen that Artha and Kaamaare interposed between Dharma and Moksha, suggesting that the fulfillment of material needs is subject to Dharma and final goal of life is spiritual liberation.

            The fourth chapter Hindu Dharma-II focuses on the caste system in India. Though the caste system has been exploited and is a symbol of exclusiveness, it was originally designed to foster cooperation, tolerance, and trust. The institution of caste is man-made and has no divine sanction. It is meant to regulate social function. The caste system is based on the principle of division of function. Each caste has its social purpose, its code, and tradition. Each group enjoys freedom in matters of food, customs, marriage etc. The foster castes, –Bramhana, Kshathtiya Vaisya, and Sudhara were not meant to work at cross purposes. They were meant to form part of an organic whole. Thus the complementary character of the caste system was emphasized.