Dream Children : A Reverie (Question-Answers)

 

Ø  Why the essay is entitled “Dream Children”?

Ans: Charles Lamb entitled the essay “Dream Children” because he never married and naturally never became the father of any children. The children he speaks of in the essay were actually the creations of his imagination or fancy.

Ø  Who was Field? How does Lamb present her before his dream children?

Ans: Field, a pseudonym for the actual person, was Lamb’s grandmother. Lamb presents her as an ideal grandmother in an imaginary and inflated way before his “dream children”—she was an extremely pious, fearless, and compassionate person besides being the best dancer in the area in her youth.

Ø  Why the essay is entitled “A Reverie”?

Ans: The essay is subtitled as a ‘reverie’ because Lamb never married and so he never had children. In the essay, he created an imaginary picture of a happy conjugal life—a picture that finally dissolves into nothing as he comes back to reality.

Ø  How does Lamb present his brother John L—?

Ans: Lamb’s elder brother, John L—in his youth was a handsome, high-spirited, strong, and fearless person. He loved Lamb very much. But subsequently, in his old age, he became lame-footed and spent the rest of his life in utter hopelessness, irritation, and pain.

Ø  Whom does Lamb refer to as “faithful Bridget” by side?

Ans: Lamb had a sister, Mary Lamb, who did not marry since she had attacks of insanity. She has been referred to here as “faithful Bridget” because she never married and was Lamb’s only companion in his life. At the sudden breakdown of his reverie, he finds her seated by his side.

Ø  What, according to you, is the most striking feature of the essay and why?

Ans: The chief characteristic feature of the essay is the author’s mingling of pathos and humour. Lamb begins the essay in a somewhat deceptive fashion, describing the incidents, full of humour. But gradually he reduces the tone towards the end describing the tragedies of his personal life.          

Ø  How does Lamb present the autobiographical elements in the essay?

Ans: Dream Children is a personal essay. Lamb presents the characters and incidents from his own life—the sketches of his grandmother, Field, his brother—John Lamb, his sister—Mary Lamb, and his tragic love affairs with Ann Simmons. But Lamb is always playing with facts and fiction and transforms the real into the literary.

Ø  How does Lamb show his knowledge of child psychology?

Ans: It is surprising that without ever having children Lamb had an acute sense of how children react to the happenings in the world of the adults. By deceptively referring to the meticulous reactions of his dream children, he succeeds in catching the reader immediately. The aesthetic impact of the essay becomes more effective for this reason.

Ø  “But John L—(or James Elia) was gone forever”—Who was James Elia? Why does the author say this?

Ans: At the end of his daydreaming Lamb coming back to reality finds his sister (Bridget) Mary Lamb by his side, but he realizes and remembers that his brother James Elia or John Lamb had died and would no more be with them. So he laments his loss thus.

Ø  How does Lamb record Alice’s reactions to his story-telling?

Ans: While listening to Lamb’s personal tale, Alice reacts first by spreading her hands when Lamb says how good, religious, and graceful person Field had been. Alice reacts to it either in great astonishment or by putting up some pious gesture. She also cries out When Lamb talks about his elder brother’s pain and death.

Ø  How does Lamb record John’s reactions to his story-telling?

Ans: At the information of the great house being stripped of its ornaments John smiled, which suggested the foolishness of the work. He was trying to look brave and impress upon his father that he would not have been afraid of the ghosts like his father. At the end of the story, when Lamb was talking of his elder brother’s pain and death, John, like Alice, began to cry.

Hindu Way of Life: Critical Summary

 

            S. Radhakrishnan was an Indian philosopher and statesman. He was the first Vice President of India and the second President of India. He is one of India's best and most influential twentieth-century scholars of comparative religion and philosophy. He had always defended Hindu culture against uninformed Western criticism and had symbolized the pride of Indians in their own intellectual traditions. He believed that Hinduism is a scientific religion based on facts apprehended via intuition or religious experience. His philosophical approach is marked by a range of thought and depth of perception. He does not think of Hinduism in isolation but in the modern context. He emphasizes the relevance of the value of Hinduism in a world that is by conflict of ideas.

            His work “The Hindu View of Life” is a relic in the world of philosophy and it is based on the Upton Lectures delivered at Manchester College, Oxford. It is his analysis of the basic concepts underlying the Hindu attitude to life. It is divided into four chapters.

            The first chapter “Religious Experience, Its Nature and Concept “gives us a vivid account of the essential characteristics of Hinduism. Actually the term 'Hindu' was geographical and did not refer to a religion. It is derived from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, the historic local name for the Indus River in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent. It refers to the land of the aboriginal tribes and many other communities with different systems of worship and belief who live across the River Indus. By the end of the 12th century and early 13^th century, Hindustan emerged as a popular alternative name for India, meaning the "land of Hindus". As per Hinduism Religion is a felt inner experience of the entire personality. Religious experience is of a Self-certifying character. Religious faith is not a matter of blind acceptance religious experience is stated and confirmed in intellectual terms.

            Faith is a matter of spiritual conviction. Hinduism admits points of view other than its own. Devine relation is not the prerogative of any individual or community. It is available to all. This truth has been recognized in Hinduism. Hinduism does not characterize ideas about God as true or false. It recognizes the fact that mankind seeks god at different levels and in different directions. It is appreciative of human effort to seek God. Hinduism has graded different levels of worship. Hindu saints see God in the self and not in images. Temples and religious centers alone should not be counted to be the places of prayer and worship. They should become capable of providing spiritual direction to the Hindus.

            In the second chapter “Conflict of Religions: the Hindu Attitude” Radhakrishnan explains how every group within the Hindu fold is allowed to enjoy its freedom and preserve its individuality. It is not the group that we belong to that counts. What matters are we and our evolution. Hinduism calls upon everyone to think clearly and steadily about the ultimate purpose and mystery of life. It does not seek to interfere with the individual’s way of thinking .it makes allowances for errors of judgment and weakness of understanding. It does not lay down a single uniform method nor does it seek to establish a stereotyped system of belief and worship.

            A known fact of Hinduism is that it has no common creed and it has not prescribed a uniform system of worship. The early Aryans' worship consisted of the worship of forces of Nature. This gives a way to imagine worship. Hindu worship is primarily an individual act rather than a communal one, as it involves making personal offerings to the deity. Worshippers repeat the names of their favourite gods and goddesses and repeat mantras. Water, fruit, flowers, and incense are offered to god.

             The third chapter “Hindu Dharma” is a discussion of the two aspects of Hinduism, the philosophical and the practical. There are two sides to Hinduism, the philosophical and the practical. Some objections to the conceptions of Hindu epics are raised. Ethical system and relations are dismissed as irrelevant in view of the doctrine of Maya which repudiates the reality of the world. Radhakrishnan says that the Upanishads emphasize the relative reality of the phenomenal world. All things in the world are of value as they contribute to the realization of the self. Eswara (Lord Shiva) held the world as Maya. The real will qualify to be called real only when it is exempt from all change and is ever-enduring. The ultimate purpose of life is liberation from the cycles – birth –death – rebirth.

             Coming to the practical side of Hinduism, Radhakrishna says that Hinduism is merely a way of life rather than from a thought. Life according to Hinduism is regulated against a four-fold scale -Dharma, (righteousness), -Artha, (wealth)- Kaama (Desire)- and Moksha,(Spiritual Freedom). It will be seen that Artha and Kaamaare interposed between Dharma and Moksha, suggesting that the fulfillment of material needs is subject to Dharma and final goal of life is spiritual liberation.

            The fourth chapter Hindu Dharma-II focuses on the caste system in India. Though the caste system has been exploited and is a symbol of exclusiveness, it was originally designed to foster cooperation, tolerance, and trust. The institution of caste is man-made and has no divine sanction. It is meant to regulate social function. The caste system is based on the principle of division of function. Each caste has its social purpose, its code, and tradition. Each group enjoys freedom in matters of food, customs, marriage etc. The foster castes, –Bramhana, Kshathtiya Vaisya, and Sudhara were not meant to work at cross purposes. They were meant to form part of an organic whole. Thus the complementary character of the caste system was emphasized.

Rabbi Ben Ezra: Critical Appreciation

 

“Rabbi Ben Ezra” was first published in 1864. It has 192 lines and is the clearest expression of Browning’s optimistic philosophy of life. It is Browning’s clearest attempt to explain his philosophy or his outlook on life, this Universe, God, and man’s relation to all this. It is a dramatic monologue because only one man speaks. The speaker is Rabbi Ben Ezra or Abraham Ibn Ezra, a twelfth-century Jewish scholar who was an actual person. Whom he speaks to is not made clear. He just puts forth his idea of God, man, and the universe. He is the spokesman for Browning. Of course, Browning generally says that his poems are objective and do not express any of his opinions. But some views are repeated so often that we can take them as being Browning’s own views.

The poem is a glorification of old age and has been written from the standpoint of age-Old age is the best period of life and men should look forward to it. It brings wisdom, knowledge, dignity, and a certain resignation and acceptance of life. Youth is a period of doubt and rebellion. Living for mere pleasure is foolish. In youth, man thinks pleasure is everything and tries to drown himself in it. He does not realize that youth is a preparation for old age which is the best period of life.

The experience we gather in our youth changes to wisdom in old age because it is through mistakes that we learn. The knowledge that there is a God and man is but a part of God’s plan comes much later. Man should surrender himself to God and then he will realize that God has planned man as a whole—youth and old age, body and soul. Just as youth lays the foundation for age so also the body is no less important than the soul. The two go together. The poem is also a glorification of failure. He underlines the fact that it is aspiration and not achievement that counts. He may not have achieved much according to the standards of the world, but in reality, his hopes wishes, and goals and the effort he makes to achieve them are what is important to Browning. Failure should not discourage us; in fact, it is better than success because success makes us take things easy. We no longer work as hard because we have got what we want. But failure makes us work that much harder, so it is good.

Through the metaphor of the potter and the pitcher, Browning explains God’s plan for man. God is the potter who is shaping the clay (man) on the wheel of life. He is shaping man by giving him pain suffering and failure. All this is meant to strengthen his character so that he becomes a strong man. This is also his explanation for the imperfection we see around us. The world is imperfect because God has made it so to try man. Thus behind imperfect man and the imperfect world is the perfect God who has a plan. Man has only to submit to the plan to know his place in the scheme of things. Once the pitcher is shaped, it is ready for use by the Gods. The soul has been purified by suffering and now it is ready for its journey which comes after death.

Question-Answers of the Essay "Of Studies"

 

Question: What does Bacon mean by “Studies serve for delight” in his essay “Of Studies”?

Ans: According to Francis Bacon “delight” means to get joy or pleasure. So, studies serve to get joy or to get pleasure. Like, we study books to get pleasure and amusement.

Question: What does Bacon mean by “Studies serve for ornament” in his essay “Of Studies”?

Ans: According to Bacon “ornament” means to beautify. So, studies serve to beautify the use of language either spoken or written. Studies improve our use of language.

Question: What does Bacon mean by “Studies serve for ability” in his essay “Of Studies”?

Ans" According to Bacon “ability” means here, the ability to work, to counsel, to judge, and to decide. So, studies serve to improve trade knowledge, counseling, judgment, and decision-making.

Question: What are the main benefits of study in the essay “Of Studies” by Francis Bacon?

Ans: According to The greatest essayist Francis Bacon the main benefits of study are delight, ornament, and ability.

Question: What is the chief use of studies for delight according to Francis Bacon in his essay “Of Studies”?

Ans: The chief use of “studies for delight” is to study in leisure time, in loneliness or solitude. It will give you pleasure and reduce the boredom.

Question: What is the chief use of studies for ornament according to Francis Bacon in his essay “Of Studies”?

Ans: The chief use of “studies for ornament” is in discourse. By studying we know new words and we learn where we use which words and which do not. It’s meant that studies beautify our speech.

Question: What is the chief use of studies for ability according to Francis Bacon in his essay “Of Studies”?

Ans: The chief use of “studies for ability” is in the judgment and business disposition. It means studies improve our ability to judge the problem and decision making. It is also helpful to understand the business nature.

Question: What is Bacon’s view about spending too much time on studies?

Ans: Bacon wrote in his essay “Of Studies” that spending too much time in studies is laziness. It means that only study could not be fruitful without experience.

Question: What is Bacon’s view about “too much use of studies for ornament” in his essay “Of Studies”?

Ans: In the essay “Of Studies” according to Bacon the too much use of studies for ornament is affectation. It means that too much use of studies for ornament makes your discourse artificial or unnatural.

Question: What is Bacon’s view about making judgments wholly by their rules in his essay “Of Studies“?

Ans: In the essay “Of Studies” Bacon tells us that to make judgments wholly by their rules (rules that are learned from the studies) is the humor of the scholar. It means that the judgments made without practical knowledge or experience are foolish.

Question: What does Bacon say about the natural abilities of a man in his essay “Of Studies”?

Ans: Bacon says that the natural abilities of a man are like the plants that need pruning (trimming) and the natural abilities of a man also need trimming by the studies. He says that the study only gives lots of directions, but experience also supplements the natural abilities.

Question: What is the attitude of a crafty man about studies, according to Bacon in his essay “Of Studies”?

Ans: According to Bacon in his essay “Of Studies” the crafty man denounces (criticizes, condemns) studies because the cunning and sneaky person used tricks and crooked ways to accomplish the job.

Question: What is the attitude of a simple man about studies, according to Bacon in his essay “Of Studies”?

Ans: According to Bacon in his essay “Of Studies” the simple man admires (regard, respect) the studies.

Question: What is the attitude of a wise man about studies, according to Bacon in his essay “Of Studies”?

Ans: According to Bacon in his essay “Of Studies” the wise man used the knowledge had gotten from his studies.

   Question: What does Bacon mean by “Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested” in the essay “Of Studies”?

Ans: According to Bacon some books are tasted meaning not studied completely but in parts. Others to be swallowed means that books are read completely, but without curiosity, and some few to be chewed and digested means that books are studied with full interest and deeply to get maximum knowledge not only thematic but at the minute level also.

 

 

Train to Pakistan as a partition novel

 

           Train to Pakistan is a magnificent novel in which Khushwant Singh describes the tragic tale of the partition of India and Pakistan and the events will be remembered as one of the blackest chapters of human history. He has designed the novel to explore the brutal and hypocritical image of man. The novel is set in the fictional village Mano Majra, a small village in which Muslims, Hindus, and Sikhs have loved each other as brothers and lived together in peace.

            The novel is divided into four sections─ the first is “Dacoity”, the second is “Kalyug”, the third is “Mano Majra” and the fourth is “Karma”. Khushwant Singh clearly builds the turbulent days of partition in these four sections. In the first section, the murder of Ram Lal by a gang of dacoits from a neighbouring village sets the main theme of the tragedy to the event. Dacoity has caused mutilation and has made some innocent persons victims of the action. Police arrest Juggut Singh and Iqbal suspecting them for the murder. Thus, the sleepy village awakens to life and slowly joins the tragic storm outside. The sudden activity in the village brings history in motion and the peace of the village slowly disappears.

            The second section, “Kalyug” describes that the novel has a cosmic vision. All the dead bodies carried by train from Pakistan to be cremated at Mano Majra advocates a sign that the old world has died. The incident of mass cremation completely destroys the peace of the Mano Majrans. Everybody in the village takes the train as a prognostication of evil times. Even Meet Singh said to Imam Baksh, “This is kalyug, the dark age”.

            The third section, “Mano Majra” is revolved around a changed Mano Majra. With the arrival of a ghost train stuffed with corpses, Mano Majra loses its ideal isolation and gets involved in the national demolition. The head constable divides the villagers into two groups ─ Sikh and Muslim. The Sikh refugees shared their cruelty meted out to the Sikhs and Hindus in Pakistan. The chaos prevails in Mano Majra. Despite that, villagers still pledge to protect their Muslim brethren. The Lambarder assures Imam Baksh, “This is your village as much as ours” Imam Baksh is overwhelmed by the expression of affection when he says, “What have to do with Pakistan? We were born here. So were our ancestors. We have lived amongst you as brothers”. But the fire of hatred blew its extreme. All are afraid of the angry and aggrieved refugees from Pakistan. The irony of fate is revealed when forces beyond the control of the Mano Majra take over and the warmth of the relationship between Sikhs and Muslims for generations is blown out. The state of mental agony and conflict between Hindus and Muslims is thus unveiled. The houses of Muslims are robbed.

            The fourth section is, “Karma” which describes the novel as a metaphysical dimension. In this section, the story reaches its devastating dramatic end with Juggut Singh sacrificing his life to save the lives of other Muslims as well as his girlfriend Nooran. The novel closes with an ironic reversal of the order of things in which the dacoit Mali becomes a custodian of Muslim property and Juggut Singh sacrifices his life. In this section ‘Karma’ takes hold of the man, but a man under his own free will fights against his fate and tries to retrieve his last soul.

            At the time of independence, India was partitioned with a great disturbance in the whole continent. Independence brought in its wake one of the bloodiest carnages in the history of India. During this period, the people of the Mano Majra village passed from a state of happiness and stability to that of bitterness and disturbance.

            Train to Pakistan describes the troubled relationship between the Muslims and the Sikhs. The situation of the country intensified miserable in the wake of the partition. The effect of this was that twelve million people had to flee leaving their homes; over a hundred thousand women, young and old, were abducted, raped, and assassinated. Thus, thousands fled from both sides of the border seeking security and refugee. The sinister and venomous impact of partition and the indignation provoked by Singh have been realistically expressed in a devastating irony in Train To Pakistan.

 

Title of the novel: The Sun also Rises

 

           “The Sun Also Rises” is a novel about a lost generation. Lost generation is the term used for those who participated in the First World War and were wounded physically or spiritually. These wounded people began to take little interest in realistic activities of life and engaged themselves in evil things like too much drinking, dancing, and having free sex. This generation has two groups. One of them was settled and the other was a group of expatriates who wanted to learn how to live in this world. But as their attitude toward life was unmanly so they were unable to learn how to live in this world. This added to their frustration and to this group Hemingway is concerned.

            This group of expatriates comprises Jakes Barnes, Lady Brett Ashley, Robert Cohn, and Mike Campbell. Robert is physically wounded while others are spiritually wounded. Jake Barnes has lost his manhood by receiving a genital wound and other lost their values. Brett Ashley has lost her moral values for she has been and still is indulging in making free sex. She has had affairs with Robert Cohn, and Jake Barnes and still yearns to make more and thus in the end has an affair with Pedro Romero. Mike Campbell is shown or told bankrupt which indicates that he has lost economic value. Robert is also a victim of these evils. First, he helps his mistress Frances and then spends with Brett Ashley who on one hand is trying to get a divorce from her husband Mr. Ashley and on the other hand is engaged to Mr. Mike. Jake in the end pimping with Brett reveals that he has lost social values as well. This generation which is lost and has lost its value is compared with the setting sun.

            On the other hand, Pedro Romero, the young bullfighter extends to content the group of expatriates. He is 19 years old and represents the young generation. He is called “Messiah” and is said to have come to save bullfighting from decadence. The bull is the symbol of evil and the the corral is the symbol of life. Pedro’s fight, in corral, with a bull is in fact man’s struggle or fight against evil in life. Hence we can clearly observe that the group of expatriates is the victim of evil for they indulge in dancing, drinking, The term and sex but Pedro Romero’s fight against bull reveals that he is fighting against evil. Term “Messiah” has especially been used for Romero which means saviour. The sentence that he has come to save bullfighting means that he has come to teach the people not to be victims of evil but that they should master up courage to fight against evil. His young age and his fighting spirit indicate that he is the rising sun. Hence the sun that has set is rising again and this is the title “The Sun Also Rises”.

Birches: Summary and Analysis

           The poem ‘Birches’ is reminiscent of the poems of The Romantics. Nostalgic, dreamy, escapist- it has all the qualities of any other romantic poem. The poem opens by giving possible explanations for the bending of the birch trees. Then the poet goes on to explain the beauty of the crystallized snows and ice-capped trees. The poet imagines a boy bending the branches while returning after herding his cows. The poet again mentions another boy bending the branches of trees in his father’s orchard. And this reminds the poet of his similar childhood experiences. The poet would like to go away from the earthly desires and then return to them after getting refreshed by swinging.

            He wants that no fate should misunderstand him and grant him only half of his desire so that he may be permitted to leave the earth but not to return to it. Earth is the right place to make love, and nowhere else love be fulfilled. He would like to go by climbing a birch tree, and would like to climb black branches up to the snow-white trunk toward heaven, until his burden becomes unbearable to the tree. Again he would come back from top to bottom and this would be a source of good joy for him both going and coming back. One could do worse if one did not like to be a swinger of birches.  He expresses his desire to go away from this world of responsibilities and return to his childhood once again so that he can start his life afresh from the beginning. He wants the fates to grant him a half wish as he doesn’t want to go away permanently from this world but to come back again because, after some considerations, he reconciles to the idea that earth is the best place for love.

            The theme or the central idea of birches is the interrelationship between reality & imagination. The poet knows very well that the bending of birches can only be brought about by an ice storm. Yet, he prefers to think that it is done by some energetic prankster. The poem illustrates the poet’s ability to take what seems to be mundane activities of life & turn it into something that holds a deeper meaning. The poem revolves around a boy living in the countryside “whose only play was what he found himself,” in this case, riding birch branches. On a deeper & figurative level, we also find the theme of life & death underlying in the poem. The poet writes a lot of meditations on life & death bringing forth some elements of spirituality. Moreover, Birches is a poem about Truth.

            Truth is at times cold and uninviting. A pinch of fantasy makes the truth appealing. In this poem, we find the tendency of human escapism. The poet cannot avoid returning to the “truth” and responsibilities of the ground. He wishes for a temporary escape either as an imaginative writer or a climber of birches. He is ready to face reality after his brief suspension of it.

Robert Frost: As a Poet of Nature

 

        Robert Frost is regarded as one of the greatest poets of the 20th century. His poems often deal with themes of nature and the natural world. His poetry reflects his deep love and appreciation for nature, and he often explores the relationship between human beings and the natural environment. Actually, Robert Frost finds many elements in nature that inspire him in his poetry, including the beauty and majesty of the natural world, the cycles of growth and decay, and the resilience and adaptability of living things.

            In many of his poems, Frost celebrates the changing seasons and the cycles of nature, from the first buds of spring to the falling leaves of autumn. He uses the natural world as a metaphor for the human experience, exploring themes of renewal, transformation, and mortality.

            Frost is also deeply interested in the relationship between human beings and the natural world. He often reflects on how we interact with nature, and how our actions can impact the environment around us. He believes that a deep appreciation for nature is essential to our understanding of us and our place in the world.

            Some of his most notable poems that showcase his talent as a poet of nature include "The Road Not Taken," "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening," and "Birches."

            In "The Road Not Taken," Frost presents readers with a choice between two paths in a forest, and the speaker must decide which one to take. The poem's title suggests that the decision to take a certain path is significant, and the natural setting underscores the importance of this choice. Frost describes the woods as "yellow" and "fair," and the speaker must choose which path to take "where it bent in the undergrowth." This imagery highlights the beauty of the natural world and the importance of making choices that will lead us to new and different experiences.

            "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening" is another of Frost's most famous poems, and it too deals with the theme of nature. The speaker stops in the woods to admire the beauty of the snowfall, but he must eventually move on. Frost uses vivid descriptions of the woods, such as "The woods are lovely, dark and deep," to evoke a sense of awe and wonder. The speaker's appreciation of nature is further emphasized by his reluctance to leave the woods, even though he has important obligations to fulfill.

            "Birches" is another poem by Frost that showcases his talent as a poet of nature. The speaker in this poem reflects on his childhood memories of swinging on birch trees, and he uses the natural world as a metaphor for life's experiences. Frost describes the birch trees as "loaded with ice a sunny winter morning" and notes how they bend and sway under the weight of the ice. This imagery suggests the resilience of the natural world and the importance of finding joy and wonder in life's challenges. Robert Frost's poetry often reflects his love for rural life and the natural landscapes of New England. He had a keen eye for the natural world and was able to capture its beauty and intricacy in his verse.

            In his poem "Mending Wall," Frost uses the imagery of a stone wall to explore the relationship between human beings and the natural world. The speaker of the poem reflects on the annual ritual of rebuilding the wall with his neighbour, and questions the need for such a barrier between them. Frost suggests that the wall is a symbol of the human desire to separate ourselves from nature and from each other.

            Another notable poem by Frost, "After Apple-Picking," explores the relationship between human beings and the cycle of the seasons. The speaker reflects on his experiences of picking apples and describes the weariness that comes with the end of the harvest season. The poem uses the imagery of apples, leaves, and snow to evoke a sense of the natural world's cycles of growth and decay.

             Robert Frost's poetry demonstrates his deep appreciation for the natural world and his ability to use nature as a lens through which to explore human experience. Through his use of vivid imagery and powerful symbolism, Frost invites readers to contemplate the beauty and complexity of the natural world and to consider our place within it. His poems continue to inspire readers to this day and remain a testament to his legacy as a poet of nature.

 

Critical appreciation of the poem ‘Absalom and Achitophel’

 

        Dryden wrote Absalom and Achitophel in 1681. This long poem consists of more than two thousand lines in two parts. The work is an allegorical satire in heroic couplets. There are many more inspired writers but there appeared no English writer who succeeded so well in so many different branches of writing. His Absalom is his greatest achievement that finds hardly any parallel in the whole range of English literature. It has various literary qualities.

            Dryden’s poetry has the representative character. In Absalom and Achitophel, historical facts have been depicted in literary manners. David Nichol says, “When we read the works of Dryden, we make a study of his Age.” The occasion of the poem was Charles II’s suppression of a rebellion headed by Shaftesbury. Charles II was restored to the throne in 1660. He had no child from his queen Catherine though had many illegitimate children. He had many mistresses. Absalom’s mother was also a mistress. But Absalom was a bastard, he was not entitled of succession. There were two political parties Tory and Whig. The Tories favoured the King but the Whig was opposite party. Its leader was Shaftesbury who supported Absalom for the succession Tories were in favour of James II, the younger brother of Charles II. Shaftesbury was arrested but acquitted by the Grand Jury. After the death of Charles II, James II became the King of England. These historical facts have been elaborated in the poem. It produces the true picture of the age. It bears not only political background but also social and religious position of the Restoration age.

            Allegory, fable, classical imitation, mock-heroic, parody and burlesque are the usual forms for satires as a satire cannot be depicted in a direct narrative form. In direct narration an another may be put into trouble. Dryden adopted the form of a Biblical allegory. It comes out from Jewish history. The analogy between Jewish history in the reign of David and the conditions of England in 1681 has given Dryden the incentive to employ the form of allegory. The parallel between David and Absalom and Charles II and Monmouth had already been described by other writers before Dryden took it up. Dryden found a similarity in the political situations of both regimes. Having adopted the same method of depiction, Dryden took it up in his own style.

            Dryden was over fifty when he wrote his great satires-Absalom and Achitophel-in two parts in 1681 and 1682. The poem succeeds in creating an impression of the inmate goodness of an indulgent King, and of his beneficent majesty, and arousing the reader’s sympathy. This great satire contained in ‘Absalom and Achitophel’ was motivated by the political events of the time. Dryden assailed the political figures of his time-Shaftesbury, Monmouth, and others who were opposing Charles II. For this satire, he used the Biblical story of ‘Absalom and Achitophel’. Through the allegorical method, he condemned the evil designs of the enemies of Charles II. As a political satire ‘Absalom and Achitophel’ has no rival. The poet has been able to maintain artistic excellence in his political satire. He has roused the tone of the satire by different devices.

            The supreme excellence of Absalom and Achitophel lies in its sketches of character. Sir Walter Scott has said that there is a gallery of portraits. The portraits with which this poem abounds especially reveal the art of Dryden. We can watch there a fine sense of delicate touch and the felicity of picturesque characterization. There is living truth of organic wholes. Dryden’s characterization is the variety of treatment.

            Dryden has maintained the epical quality in his poem. It is a heroic-poem the subject of which is lofty-the futile plot against a legal king. A critic says, “Dryden uses the highlighting that is required for epic poetry, as for tragedy, there is plot, the characters, the wit, the passions, the descriptions are all exalted above the level of common converse as high as the imagination of the poet can carry them with proportion to verisimilitude.

            Some critics have thrown light on some faults in the poem. According to them its end is defective. The end has no poetic justice and no conclusion, no plot and from the beginning to the end no action. Some characters only speak but do nothing. The descriptions of Jave nods, Olympus tramples, and the cloudy scenes have no significance.

Absolam and Achitophel: A Political Satire

 

        Satire is a literary attack on the follies and vices of an individual or society to correct them through laughter and ridicule. It has some characteristics. These are:

Ø  Literary form of expression.

Ø  Disgust at the ugly and foolishness.

Ø  Humour.

Ø  A sincere desire to correct or reform.

            The only intention of Dryden to write this poem was to support King Charles II. The King himself asked Dryden to write a poem satirizing the Whig party and particularly its leader Shaftesbury. Dryden was also a supporter of Tory. He was called Staunch Tory. He used satire very strictly for people who were against King Charles II and made plan to dethrone him.

            First, Dryden attacked the Earl of Shaftesbury. With his, brilliant tricks he represented Shaftesbury as a hypocrite. We found Shaftesbury a smooth talker and with this capability, he convinced Duke of Monmouth to go against his father.

            Dryden also attacked the Protestant group. The Protestant group was in fear that if James, the brother of King Charles II, came to the throne then Roman Catholics would be beneficial and would be in power. Here, it is notable that James, the Duke of York was thought to be a follower of the Pope Roman Catholic. Instead, Protestants wanted to see the Duke of Monmouth in the throne of England. In Absalom and Achitophel, Dryden tried to show the traitorous activities of the Whigs against their king.

            In the seventeenth century England, religion played a big role in ruling the country, and politics and religion were closely related to each other. Both Protestant Christians and their rival Roman Catholic were in cock fight to grab the power of the country. To prevent Roman Catholics from getting into power in England, a clergyman, Titus Oates, in favor of Protestants, also made a plan and claimed that James and Roman Catholics had tried to kill King Charles II to make James as the king of England which was later proved wrong.

            Dryden in Absalom and Achitophel also criticized the Duke of Buckingham with whom he had personal conflict. When Dryden joined as a poet-laureate and historiographer to the government in 1670, he got both money and recognition. Being jealous of Dryden’s a prosperity, some contemporary high officials started making fun of him. Duke of Buckingham was one of those people. In his literary work, The Rehearsal, he strongly criticized Dryden. In Absalom and Achitophel, Dryden took revenge for making fun of him. In his poem, Dryden compared the Duke of Buckingham to the Biblical character Zimri, who being lured to the throne of Israel, killed his master and ascended to the throne though Zmiri could only survive for seven days as the king of Israel. In reality, the Duke of Buckingham was initially a friend of King Charles II, but when the religious chaos between Whigs and Tories started, he joined the Whigs, the rebel group of King Charles II.

            In Absalom and Achitophel, Dryden did not focus much on the Duke of Monmouth who in the poem is compared to Absalom. Instead, he criticized much about Shaftesbury who is compared to Achitophel. According to the Bible, Achitophel was a counselor to the court of King David, father of Absalom. When Absalom set to fight against his father, King David, Achitophel joined Absalom’s side. So, Dryden’s Absalom and Achitophel would be much more related to the Biblical incident of Absalom and Achitophel, if he gave much importance to the Duke of Monmouth while making satire. However, Dryden mostly attacked Shaftesbury (symbolizing Achitophel in the poem). There are some political reasons behind it. At that time in England, Shaftesbury was in the lead of the Whigs, who placed “The Exclusion Bill” in the House of Commons. So, Dryden wanted to save King Charles II from any volatile situation due to the continuing rebellion. That is why; Dryden gave much importance while making satire. Another reason is that Dryden might have thought that if he criticized Duke of Monmouth much then he would be more furious and as the Duke of Monmouth was an illegitimate child of King Charles II, Dryden tried to make a compromise between the King and Duke of Monmouth so that the movement over the religion and power could be stopped.

            In Dryden’s time, satire became popular, especially among the political parties. In that time, Dryden wrote this poem. It is his best work. Now, this satirical poem is considered a classical work of Dryden in English literature.