Character sketch of Satan (Paradise Lost Book-1)

 

            John Milton portrays Satan as a great leader. His speeches are evident that neither he gives up on his ambitions nor does he let down the morale of his army. He is courageous, self-confident, and determined in, his plans. From the very beginning when he speaks and breaks the silence, readers realize his leadership qualities. He answers every question with confidence that Beelzebub asks him. It seems that he has inherited the best leadership qualities. He seems like a politician of modern days who always has a satisfactory answer to every question. Furthermore, he is a powerful, inspirational and motivational speaker.

            He shows his sympathy with his fellow angels. All speeches of Satan reveal that he considers himself one of them. He has clever skills in molding the minds of his army. Flattery, and making propaganda mixed with threats are also some other important leadership qualities of Satan’s character in Book 1 of Paradise Lost.

            He has been illustrated as a wicked general and a brave commander. He wants to remain a commander forever; hence, he says that it is better to reign in hell than to serve in heaven. Satan knows that he has fewer powers yet he wants to fight back with the help of fallen angels. He does everything to boost their morale. He, like a general, plans operations for them.

            The Hero of Paradise Lost remained controversial between the critics; some say that Satan is the hero whereas others regard Adam as the main hero of the poem. It is also a matter of fact that if Adam is the hero of Paradise Lost then he is action-less. Most of the action of the poem has been associated with Satan’s character and that too in Book 1 of Paradise Lost. He has an ambition to gain what he has lost. He cannot compromise on less, hence, he does everything he can to regain his lost position. The following line describes him as an ambitious hero:

                                          All is not lost unconquerable will.

            Satan knows the weaknesses of others and always finds an opportunity to discover more. He avails every opportunity that he has to avenge his enemies. He goes to Eve in the guise of a serpent and flatters her beauty. As we all know flattery is one of his best leadership qualities; therefore, he flatters her and tempts her to eat the forbidden apple.

            William Blake observes Satan and mentions that Milton belongs to the devil party. He further mentions that Milton has glorified Satan’s character, especially in Book 1 of Paradise Lost. Critics are of the view that good qualities should be attributed to the hero instead of bad ones, hence, Milton has not done poetic justice while writing his epic poem. He creates such a character that has an unyielding courage. He never loses hope nor does he give up on his ambitions. Besides, he is the most powerful character of Paradise Lost but he uses his powers to do the evil that gives a negative message to the readers. Milton has been discharged from this charge as Satan’s glorification is no more associated with him as a hero but as a villain. John Milton justifies God’s ways. He never says that Satan is the hero of his book, rather he shows the possibility that a villain can be more powerful than the hero. Whatever may be the objection of the critics, it is sure that he creates Satan a character that has an indomitable courage.

            In Book 1 of Paradise Lost John Milton gives Satan’s character a heroic stature. He makes him unique; a character that was never created in history. In Book 1 of Paradise Lost, Milton gives Satan’s character epic attributes such as a great leader, a brave general, a hero determined to his ambitions, a person who never settles on less than he deserves, a rebel, and an indomitable courageous hero.

Question-Answers of Story "The Child"

 

1)      How does Gangu convince the narrator that it is not wrong to marry Gomti? Is the narrator convinced?

Ans. Gangu tells the writer that he knows everything about Gomti and wants to marry her. He says she left her previous husbands because they did not love her. They loved only her body and not her heart. According to him, a woman wants only love. He says that he will love Gomti from the core of his heart. But the narrator is not convinced.

2)      What is the impression the narrator has of Gangu's married life with Gomti?

Ans. The narrator thinks that Gangu's married life with Gomti will not be happy. He thinks that Gomti will run away from Gangu's house too. After his marriage with Gomti, Gangu starts living in a thatched house. To earn his living, he started to sell snacks from a cart. He earns enough to meet all his needs. Now he always looked cheerful. He seemed to have no worry at all. He looks full of energy. The dignity and joy on his face is a proof of his inner peace. One day he comes across Gangu in the market. He is surprised to see that Gangu is cheerful.

3)      Is Gangu the hero of the story? If so, how does the story make him one?

Ans. Yes, Gangu is the hero of the story. In this story, he acts like a reformer. He knows that Gomti has run away from the houses of her three previous husbands. Even now she is leading a life of illreputation. But Gangu believes that one should love one's heart, not body. So, despite the protest of his master, he marries Gomti. He even adopts Gomti's child which is born to her by her previous husband. Gangu does not believe in outdated conventions.

4)      What is the role of the child in the story?

Ans. The story is appropriately named 'The Child.' The child in the title appears at the end of the story. But it plays an important role. This is the child of Gangu's wife, Gomti. But it is Gomti's child from a previous husband. Despite knowing this fact, Gangu adopts the child. This incident moves the narrator to tears. He realizes that he has been following old and useless conventions. He takes the child from Gangu. He holds the child to his breast.

5)      What did the narrator think about Gangu as a servant?

Ans. Gangu was different from other servants. The other servants bowed to him, but Gangu never greeted him like that. Being a Brahmin, he probably expected the narrator to bow to him. The narrator had not the courage to ask him to fan him in the hot weather. If ever Gangu did it, he behaved as if he were doing the narrator a great favour. Gangu never touched any of the used utensils.

6)      How did the narrator feel when Gangu said that he wanted to leave his job?

Ans. The narrator was shocked when Gangu said that he wanted to leave his job. He was considered an ideal employer. Servants considered it their good fortune to stay on with him. No servant had ever come to him with a request to leave. Naturally, the narrator felt hurt when Gangu came with such a request.

7)      Why did Gangu want to leave his job?

Ans. Gangu had decided to marry a widow named Gomti Devi. She was a woman of a bad reputation. If Gangu married her, people could raise their fingers at his master also. Gangu didn't want his master to get a bad name on his account. So, he decided to leave his job.

8)      How did Gangu feel after Gomti had left him?

Ans. Gangu was very sad after Gomti had left him. He looked completely shattered. He felt sure that he was not good enough for her. While she was educated, he was an absolute illiterate. "I must have been at fault somewhere that she decided to leave," said Gangu very sadly.

9)      Describe Gangu's life after he had married Gomti.

Ans. Gangu had left his job with the narrator. After marrying Gomti, he started living in a thatched hut. He was now always happy. His face had a glow which showed that he had no worry at all. He earned a living as a hawker. He earned about a rupee daily. After buying the stock, he was left with about ten annas. Thus, he lived a life of complete contentment.

10)  Draw a character sketch of Gangu.

Ans. Gangu is completely illiterate, but he towers far above the so-called literates. He may have been old-fashioned but in matters of humanism, no one could be more enlightened. He may not deserve respect as a Brahmin, but as a man, he is the embodiment of goodness. Whatever shortcomings he might have as a servant, he would do proud to any wife as a husband. Gangu is an old-fashioned, illiterate Brahmin. But he shows a better understanding of human character than the narrator. The narrator calls him short-tempered. But nowhere in the story do we see him reacting in that manner. The narrator blames Gomti for leaving her husbands. He never tries to analyse the reasons behind it. But Gangu puts it so rightly when he says, "Where there is no love, we cannot expect a woman to stay on. We cannot win a woman with mere board and lodging." To conclude, we can say that Gangu is an angel of love and compassion.

11)  Narrate briefly the story, 'The Child', in your own words.

Ans. Gangu was one of the narrator's servants. He was completely illiterate. One day, he told the narrator that he wanted to leave his job. He wanted to marry a woman named Gomti Devi. She was a widow and had already married three times. But Gangu found no fault in her. He said, "Where there is no love, you can't expect a woman to stay on." When the narrator saw that Gangu was determined to marry Gomti Devi, he let him go. But he was certain that the marriage wouldn't last more than a few days. And he was proved right. One day he heard that Gomti had run away. Gangu looked completely shattered. He said that he must have been at fault somewhere that Gomti had left him. He called her a goddess. The narrator called Gangu a fool who still had his eyes closed. He asked him to go and find her out if he was so much attached to her. Gangu found Gomti in the Women's Hospital in Lucknow. She had given birth to a male child. That was why she had run away. Gangu brought her back. The narrator knew that Gangu had been married for only six months. He was surprised at Gangu's shamelessness. But Gangu said that he would love the child as his own. The important thing for him was that Gomti should love him. The narrator was deeply impressed by Gangu's sentiments. He took the child from Gangu and kissed it. Then he went with Gangu to meet Gomti at their house.

Paradise Lost Book-1 Introduction

 John Milton's Paradise Lost is one of the greatest epic poems in English literature. It deals mainly with the fall of Adam and Eve and the loss of Paradise. Milton explains how human beings disobeyed God and how sin, suffering and death entered the world. Book I contains 798 lines and is written in blank verse. It is mainly concerned with Satan, his fall from Heaven, his arrival in Hell, his meeting with the other fallen angels, and his plan to take revenge against God.

Book I has six sections.

1          1–26    Invocation and purpose of the poem

2          27–83  Fall of Satan and description of Hell

3          84–282 Conversation between Satan and Beelzebub

4          283–621 Gathering and description of fallen angels

5          622–669 Satan's speech to the fallen angels

6          670–798 Construction of Pandemonium

Section 1: Invocation and Purpose of the Poem Lines 1–26

The poem begins with the famous words: “Of Man's first disobedience, and the fruit/ Of that forbidden tree…” Milton immediately tells us what the poem is about. His subject is man's first disobedience to God. God had given Adam and Eve everything they needed. They lived happily in the Garden of Eden. However, God had forbidden them to eat the fruit of one particular tree—the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil. Adam and Eve later disobey God and eat the forbidden fruit. As a result, they lose Paradise. Sin, suffering and death enter human life. Milton also looks beyond the Fall. He knows that, according to Christian belief, Christ will later provide salvation for humanity. Like a traditional epic poet, Milton begins by asking for divine inspiration. He calls upon the Heavenly Muse. For Milton, the true source of inspiration is not an ordinary Greek or Roman Muse. His Muse is connected with God and the Holy Spirit. He asks the divine Spirit to give him wisdom and understanding: “What in me is dark /Illumine, what is low raise and support.” In simple words, Milton says: “Remove the darkness from my mind and give me the wisdom and strength to write this great poem.” Milton clearly explains why he is writing the poem: “And justify the ways of God to men.” This means that Milton wants to explain God's justice and wisdom to human beings. He wants readers to understand why God allowed human beings to have free will, why the Fall happened, and how God's larger plan eventually brings salvation. In Simple Words, the first section tells us the poem is about the Fall of Man. Adam and Eve disobey God. Their disobedience brings sin and death. Milton asks God for inspiration. Milton wants to explain God's justice to human beings.

Section 2: The Fall of Satan and Hell Lines 27–83

After introducing the Fall of Man, Milton goes back to an event that happened before Adam and Eve sinned. This event is the rebellion of Satan against God. Satan was originally a beautiful and powerful angel. He was known as Lucifer. But he became extremely proud. He wanted to become equal to God. Satan and his followers rebelled against God. A great war took place in Heaven. Satan and his followers were defeated by God and thrown out of Heaven. They fell into Hell. Milton describes Hell as a terrible place filled with fire, darkness, pain, suffering, loneliness, and despair. Satan and his followers remain in the fiery lake for nine days before Satan recovers consciousness. Milton calls Hell a “dungeon horrible”.  He also describes the “fiery Gulfe” The description creates a frightening picture of Hell. An important point is that Satan does not feel sorry for his rebellion. He has lost Heaven, but he has not lost his pride. Instead of saying, “I was wrong,” he thinks about how he can continue his fight against God. This is important because it shows Satan's character from the beginning. Satan has lost the battle, but he has not accepted defeat in his mind. He wants to continue his struggle against God.

Section 3: Satan and Beelzebub Lines 84–282

Satan sees his close companion Beelzebub lying near him in Hell. Beelzebub was once a powerful angel. Satan remembers his former beauty and glory. He says: “O how fall'n! how chang'd…” Satan is shocked by how much they have changed after their fall from Heaven. However, Satan does not repent. Instead, he says that although they have lost Heaven, they have not lost their courage and determination. One of the most important lines is: “What though the field be lost?/ All is not lost…” Satan believes that his mind and will are still free. He says: “The mind is its own place, and in itself/ Can make a Heav'n of Hell, a Hell of Heav'n.” This means that a person's mental attitude can change how he experiences his situation. Satan believes that if he remains mentally strong, even Hell cannot completely defeat him. “Better to reign in Hell than serve in Heaven” This is probably the most famous quotation from Book I. Beelzebub is more pessimistic than Satan. He understands that they are suffering and that God has defeated them. But Satan remains determined. He tells Beelzebub that they should find another way to fight God. He says: “To do ought good never will be our task,/ But ever to do ill…” This reveals Satan's determination to oppose God at every stage. The conversation between Satan and Beelzebub shows that Satan is proud. Beelzebub is more fearful and hopeless. Satan refuses to surrender. Satan wants revenge. He begins thinking of a new way to fight God.

Section 4: The Fallen Angels Gather Lines 283–621

After speaking with Beelzebub, Satan looks at the other fallen angels. They are lying exhausted in Hell. Satan becomes angry and calls them to rise: “Awake, arise, or be forever fall'n.” The fallen angels immediately respond to Satan's command. They gather around their leader. Milton then gives a long description of the important fallen angels. Some of the names mentioned are Moloch, Chemos, Astarte, Thammuz, Dagon, Rimmon, Osiris, Isis, Orus, and Belial. These figures are associated with the false gods worshipped by different ancient peoples. Milton wants us to see that the fallen angels are not ordinary creatures. They are powerful supernatural beings. However, despite their power, they have already been defeated by God. Satan wakes his followers and gathers them together. Milton then describes the large army of fallen angels and gives the names of their important leaders.

Section 5: Satan's Speech to the Fallen Angels Lines 622–669

Now all the fallen angels are gathered around Satan. Satan addresses them and tries to increase their confidence. He calls them: “Myriads of immortal Spirits” This means countless immortal spirits. Satan tells them that they should not lose hope. He reminds them that they are still powerful and that they can continue their struggle against God. But Satan understands one important thing: they cannot defeat God through direct war. Therefore, they must use a different method. He decides to use “fraud” and “guile” In simple words, this means deception and trickery. Satan's New Plan: Satan hears that God is going to create a new creature called Man. This gives Satan a new idea. He decides: “If we cannot defeat God directly, we can attack His new creation.” Therefore, Satan plans to corrupt human beings. This plan eventually leads him to Adam and Eve.

Section 6: Construction of Pandemonium Lines 670–798

After Satan's speech, the fallen angels begin to prepare a meeting place. They are led by Mammon, who represents a strong desire for material wealth. The demons dig into the earth and discover valuable materials such as gold, precious metals, and other treasures. Using their supernatural powers, they construct a magnificent palace. This palace is called Pandemonium. The word Pandemonium means approximately “the place of all demons.” It becomes the capital or meeting place of the fallen angels. Milton describes the building in grand and magnificent language. Thousands of demons enter the palace. Because they are supernatural beings, they can change their size and become small enough to enter the enormous building. Finally, all the demons gather inside. Milton ends Book I by saying: “The great consult began.” This means that the great council or meeting of the demons begins. They are now ready to discuss their plans against God.

Oedipus Complex in Sons and Lovers

 

It was Freud the modern psychologist who built up the theory of the Oedipus Complex based on the ancient myth of Oedipus Rex of Thebes. To explain his theory he says that a mother’s love for her son and a son’s love for his mother are fundamentally based upon the attraction between opposite sexes. D. H. Lawrence is a great novelist of human psychology. He has drawn many distinguishing characters in his novels. The relationship between Paul and his mother is an “Oedipus Complex” case in Sons and Lovers. 

William had been Mrs Morel’s favourite son. She had been lavishing all her love and affection upon him. She had been cherishing high ambitions about his future. Especially she had felt proud when he got a job in London on a decent salary. She felt a little disappointed when he fell in love with a superficial girl, Lily Western. William had loved his mother deeply too. That is why he kept writing loving letters to his mother when he went to London. Now, the love between William and Mrs Morel was not a case of ordinary love between a mother and her son.

After the death of her oldest son, Paul becomes the focus of her life. But Paul has a love relationship with Miriam. Mrs Morel does not tolerate the absorbing nature of Miriam. Mrs Morel thinks that she is becoming neglected by her son Paul because of his relationship with Miriam. She again and again tells that she cannot bear it at any cost. At that time, Paul tries to console his mother by telling her that he loves his mother, not Miriam. His home with his mother is the real centre of attraction. But his mother cannot understand it. Even she says that she can let another woman for her son but not Miriam because she leaves no room, but a bit of room for

Mrs Morel's love for Paul had an element of anguish in it because she always felt uneasy over the thought that Paul was wasting his time and energy over the wrong girl. Later, Mrs Morel wanted Paul to give up his friendship even with Clara because Clara was married. Paul had developed a sexual relationship with Miriam, but he could not discuss this matter with his mother. At the same time, he had developed a sexual relationship with Clara; he could not discuss the subject with his mother. It was another part of the "Oedipus Complex”.

There is another  "Oedipus Complex" touch in Paul's love relationship with his mother. His love for her even proved an obstacle in the way of his loving any other woman in a normal manner. When she felt ill, he again showed extraordinary devotion to her. During her illness, he had no peace of mind at all. Tears would flow from his eyes when he saw her suffering. He spoke to Clara about his mother's lingering illness. All day long he was very worried about his mother. It was a long pain which made him feel feverish. He often addressed his mother as "Pigeon" and "my little", as if she were his sweetheart and sweet lover.

Thus the days passed, the weeks, and the months. When his mother died, Paul felt that his life is empty and meaningless. It was with great effort that he was able to persuade himself that his mother was still alive. It was this feeling which saved him from despair and from suicide.

To sum up, we can say that the "Oedipus Complex" is a leading theme of this novel. Actually, the novelist has not invented this relationship; he has only described his own experience with his mother. Paul is D H. Lawrence himself; and Paul's mother is Lawrence's own mother. So we may say that the central theme of Sons and Lovers may best be described as the "Oedipus Complex”.

Robert Browning as an Optimistic Poet

 

Browning is a moralist and a religious teacher. His optimism is based on life's realities. Life is full of imperfection but in this very imperfection lies hope, according to Browning's philosophical views. Actually, the philosophy of Browning is the philosophy of a man looking at the world with more than a glimmer of hope in his eyes. He holds a very distinct place among the writers of the Victorian Age. He is an uncompromising foe of "Scientific Materialism". He preaches God and universality as the central truth of his philosophy of life.

As an optimist, he portrayed almost all kinds of people from different stages of society in his poems. He had gone so far as to study the relationship between Man and the entire world. His poems are full of courage and inspiration for those people of the world. We can prove Browning as an optimist more clearly from the following analysis.

Browning is a man with hope for the fate of humans. Actually, his hope is not for this world, but for the next world too. He believes that the soul of a human being is immortal. After death, there will be an action for Man by God named salvation in which he will be rewarded or punished for his deeds from his birth to his death. As, in his “The Last Ride Together”, he said-

We fall to rise, are baffled to fight better

Sleep to wake”

As we have already known that Browning has a strong belief in the immortality of the soul. According to him, only the human body dies, but the soul lives on in the infinite, the place of God. Again in “The Last Ride Together”, the speaker of the poem says that after death his and his beloved’s soul will enter and meet into eternity and will stay there eternally.

“The instant made eternity,

And Heaven just prove that I and she

Ride, ride together, forever ride?”

There is no doubt that Browning has firm faith in the divinity of God. His characters, especially the speakers are compressed with the belief in God. He addressed God and immortality as the central truth of his philosophy of life.

Besides, he does not mean that there is no suffering or evil in the world at all. Evil is actually a moral condition in the way of man’s improvement. It is a man who cannot be successful without an enemy. It is only awareness and failure that will help man in his advance toward perfection.

In his poems, Browning asks man to keep himself drowned in an imperishable struggle. Because success will come only through hard work. He puts stress on continuous human effort. He also believes that hard work with a definite goal is much better than a struggle that has no aim. Once a man has learned to struggle, there will be no goal that he cannot achieve.

“Andrea Del Sarto” is the kind of poem in which Browning lays emphasis on the role of human struggle. No man can achieve the peak of a hundred per cent perfection, but he should keep his struggle go on so that he may reach somewhere near perfection. As Andres says-

“Ah, but a man’s reach should exceed his grasp,

Or what’s a heaven for?”

So, after the above discussion, we can conclude that Browning’s strong optimistic faith is very notable in the Victorian age. If we scan all the English poets, we may not find as many complete, conscious, magnificent men with a sense of optimism as Robert Browning.

Robert Browning as a writer of dramatic monologue

 

The poem which has a speaker and silent listener or listeners may be called Dramatic Monologue. The speaker reveals his thoughts in front of silent listeners. The listener remains silent all through the poem but infers his presence from what the speaker says. The speaker’s utterance is a response to an occasion or event of crucial importance in his life.

In Browning’s dramatic monologues, generally, we find there is a single speaker.  In the poem “My Last Duchess”, the Duke who is a sixteenth-century nobleman of Italy, is the speaker and the only silent listener is the emissary who has come to him to negotiate for his second marriage with a count’s daughter. Each of the dramatic monologues of Browning has an abrupt and arresting. The poem “My Last Duchess”, starts with a dramatic suddenness:

“That’s my last Duchess painted on the wall

                                              Looking as if she were alive:”

Browning’s dramatic monologues provide an understanding of the character of the speaker. For instance in “Porphyria’s Lover”, we find the psychological makeup of the speaker. He is afraid that the blissful moment of love will pass away. So he kills his beloved. Yet he suffers no sense of guilt, as he says in this poem:

“And all night long we have not stirred

And yet God has not said a word!”

The murder reminds us of the murder of the Duchess by the Duke in Browning’s “My Last Duchess”. The Duke says:

“This grew, I gave command

Then all the smiles stopped together”

Porphyria’s lover is not as cruel as Duke. He just wants to get his beloved permanently. In “Andrea Del Sarto”, we can see an uxorious husband whose love for his wife destroys his career as an artist. Similarly in “Fra Lippo Lippi”, we find a monk who is morally loose. Thus all those dramatic monologues successfully concentrate on the personality of the speaker.

Regarding Browning’s exceptionally brilliant use of blank verse, Arthur Symons rightly says that “He is perhaps the greatest master in our language” in heroic couplets. He maintains a balance between his style and content. The language and tone of “Porphyria’s  Lover”, are equally remarkable for their simplicity and naturalness. Porphyria has murdered his beloved. But he narrates the event so naturally that reader does not hate the crime, as he says in this poem:

“No pain felt she

I am quite sure she felt no pain”

Realistic and beautiful nature-picture is another striking feature of Browning’s dramatic monologues. These two are not taken from a single country. As he took his character from various ages and various countries. Similarly, he picked up his nature scenes and landscapes as background for human thought and emotion. For example, the description of the lace where the Grammarian is to buried heightens. The speaker says in the following ways in the poem:

“Here’s the top peak…..

Bury this man there?”

In light of our discussion, we can easily say that Robert Browing is very successful in handling the form of dramatic monologue in his poems. Almost all the elements of a successful dramatic monologue are presented in his poems. Robert Browning’s dramatic monologues are thoughtful, confessional, and self-revealing.

 

Arms and the Man: As a Anti-romantic Comedy

 

Arms and the Man is a famous play written by George Barnard Shaw that was first performed on April 21, 1984. This play uncovers the falseness of the war and deals with the two facades of human nature. It is regarded as an anti-romantic play because through this play Shaw has criticized the dreamlike worship of life. The play is also a comedy because in it Shaw has openly ridiculed the futility of romantic love and the idea of war. We can also call Shaw’s play a didactic play because the dramatist aims to show his readers the reality of love and war. 

Shaw brings up anti-romantic aspects in  Arms and the Man through situational irony. Raina, in the beginning, accepts the romantic idea of war and in her dreams manifests this idea in the character of Sergius, with whom she is in love. Her ideas of war and love both rests on physical appearance and fantasies. But Bluntschli enlightens her of this romantic concept of soldierly bravery, expressing it as merely an unprincipled form of stupidity. Eventually, Raina abandons her romantic ideas and is assured that a more practical perception is superior and changing her romantic feelings for Segius with a more profound love for Bluntschli. 

Shaw’s argument of romantic love is more complicated than it appears primarily. Love is not what Raina was thinking in the First Act, which is the uniting of her soul to Sergius’s and the concept that they could possibly live merrily together. Their association appears perfect, with her flawless virtuosity and his valour and glory. Shaw says this kind of love is based on misrepresenting how an individual acts besides fairy tales. 

In Arms and the Man, the characters and their conversations are either guided by romantic love or lack of it. During the early twentieth century, the societal traditions of love incorporated social courting, parental consent, and giving importance to the prestige and money of each partner. But the characters in the play go against the general standard and end up with a character that is well-suited to them. 

Characters gradually disillusion themselves with the characteristics of romantic love they have greatly admired throughout their lives and find that it is much more complicated. For example, At the beginning of the play, it seems that Raina is in love with Sergius, but when she became infatuated with Blunstshcli, she understands that her love for Sergius was shallow and not profound. Raina may also have fallen in love with Sergius because he was applauded as a hero and also because her mother Catherine and her father Petkoff encouraged the relationship to preserve the family’s prestige. 

On the other hand, Louka, even though she is engaged to Nicola, doesn’t seem to have ever been in love with him and exhibits that she is eager to make an effort to tie the knot into an upper rank. Romantic love doesn’t appear to be a concern in her judgments. The preliminaries of Louka’s relationship with Sergius are adulterous and go against the norms of courtship. The first meeting of Bluntschli and Raina is also unusual, as they meet covertly in her bedroom. And eventually, when they got engaged, Bluntschli, the practical and crafty soldier, astonished everyone by disclosing himself to be a lifelong romance.

Shaw does not completely reject the concept of romantic love. Rather, he only allows it when characters discard their preconceptions about romantic love. Blunstshcli casts aside much of his soldierly courageous behaviour before Raina when he first meets her in her bedroom. And Raina also confesses that she is not altogether a perfect individual, as she often does and utters things that oppose righteous and decent behaviour.

We cannot call the relationship of Louka and Sergius a proper romantic relationship. Their relationship is based on lust and ambitions together with the advancement of one’s social status. This is possibly not romantic love in the way Blunstshcli and Raina exhibit, and it is certainly not the kind of romantic love Raina manifests at the beginning of the play. Shaw appears to place a lot more importance on the way individuals behave, instead of their romanticized ideas about behaviour and conduct. 

Arms and the Man also talks about how war is fought. Shaw has taken the title of the play from Virgil’s “Aeneid” which extols war. Shaw used this title ironically to show how war should not be judged as romantic. 

Bluntschli is a Swiss mercenary who has employed himself for the Serbians together with other soldiers. Sergius is expected to exhibit the 'heart' of the Bulgarians' mission, with his courageous charge at the beginning of the play illustrating how firmly he wants to preserve his nation’s glory. But as the story of the play progresses it becomes clear that war is merely a piece of work for soldiers. Sergius whom we thought to be a brave hero was actually marshalling a foolish charge against the opponent. He does this only so that he gets promoted to a higher rank. Bluntschli also breaks up Raina’s fairy-tale idea of war and bravery when he manifests that the great soldiers are generally not recognized as such on the outside. 

To conclude, we can say that Shaw’s play Arms and the Man is an anti-romantic comedy because, with his creative intellect and humour, Shaw dismisses the idealistic concept of love and war and reveals what they really are.

 

Themes in the play Arms and the Man

The play discusses how war is made, how it is fought, and how parties sue for peace at the close of it. Indeed, the play’s title is a direct quote from Virgil’s Aeneid, the Roman epic that glorifies war. Shaw used this quote ironically, drawing attention to how war should not be seen as romantic.

The Serbo-Bulgarian War is not addressed directly in the text, although that is the historical template on which Shaw bases his production. Bluntschli is a Swiss mercenary who has hired himself to the Serb cause, along with soldiers from other nations. Sergius is supposed to represent the “heart” of the Bulgarian enterprise, with his gutsy charge at the start of the work demonstrating just how powerfully he wishes to defend his nation’s honour. What becomes clear as the play progresses, however, is that war is simply a job for soldiers, and nothing more. Sergius is not the hero he is initially thought to be. He romanticizes war to such an extent that he leads a foolish charge against the enemy and only does so to climb the ranks for recognition. Bluntschli also destroys Raina’s romantic idea of war and heroism when he proves that the best soldiers are often not identified as such on the outside.

For Shaw, war is simply a way for men to occupy themselves, perhaps in redrawing small parts of the national borders, while others on the domestic front, who are predominantly women, shape many more aspects of life. Though Catherine and Raina are ostensibly dependent upon the outcome of the war, in dealing with Bluntshli they are also active participants in some of its intrigues. In harbouring an enemy and ultimately marrying him, they add to the argument that war and its divisiveness can be meaningless.

The characters' interactions are primarily driven by romantic love or lack thereof. Social conventions of love during Shaw’s period included public and formal courting, parental approval, and consideration of each partner's social status and wealth. However, the characters in this play defy the norms and each end up with a person that is best suited to them.

Characters slowly disabuse themselves of the features of romantic love they have most cherished all their lives, and realize that it is far more complex. For example, Raina does appear to love Sergius at the beginning of the play, but when she falls in love with Blunstshcli, she realizes her love for Sergius was superficial. Perhaps Raina only felt this way because Sergius was lauded as a hero and because Catherine and Petkoff supported the union to maintain the family’s social status.

By contrast, Louka, though engaged to her fellow servant Nicola, does not appear to have ever been in love with him, and demonstrates that she is willing to work hard to marry into a higher rank. Romantic love does not seem to be a factor in her decisions. The beginnings of Louka’s relationship with Sergius are illicit and defy the social norms of courtship. Bluntschli’s introduction to Raina is also unconventional, as they meet secretly in her bedroom. And when they finally become engaged, Bluntschli, the pragmatic and calculating soldier, surprises everyone by revealing himself to be a lifelong romantic.

The social station of the characters in the play is one of the dynamics that becomes most pronounced by its end. Louka wants to be more than a servant, whereas Nicola seems content to remain one. Bluntschli appears to be middle class but reveals later that he is far wealthier than the noble Petkoffs. Petkoff and Catherine want Raina to reinforce the family’s position however she can, either by marrying the ostensibly bravest man in Bulgaria, Sergius or by adding greatly to the family’s coffers by joining with Bluntschli.

As in any marriage narrative of the nineteenth century, romantic love might be a part of the marriage calculation, as it certainly didn’t hurt to love one’s partner. But that is far from the point of marriage in this period. Characters want to unite noble families and improve financial situations. What romantic love tends to do in these situations, then, is cut across and destabilize what might be the otherwise orderly transfer of money between families.

Throughout the play, Shaw demonstrates that concepts like good versus bad, or courage versus cowardliness, have at least as much to do with the situations in which one finds oneself as they do with the innate qualities of that person. Bluntschli is innately a person for whom innate qualities don’t seem to matter. He is a man who makes his decisions based on the circumstances in which he finds himself. This view on life might be bewildering to an outsider, but it allows him to survive the war as a soldier, and eventually win Raina’s hand in marriage.

It would be tempting to say that Bluntschli achieves these successes because he is simply a better man, soldier, and lover than Sergius. But what makes Bluntschli better is his willingness to cast aside those categories in favour of a more fluid morality that allows for lying and misrepresentation to protect his life. Bluntschli is willing not just to overlook the mistakes Raina makes. He believes that that is a natural part of loving anyone, just as it’s natural for a soldier to want to survive a conflict rather than die in it.

In this sense, Bluntschli most strongly embodies Shaw’s understanding of circumstantial ethical decision-making. Raina does, too, in her admission to Bluntschli that she is not always perfectly honest. On the other side is Sergius, a man who purports to be good all the way to his core, but then admits to Louka that he contains “many persons” inside him, some of who behave admirably, and others who will do whatever it takes to satisfy their basest urges, as in philandering while his fiancée is off-stage.

Shaw’s discussion of romantic love is more complex than it seems initially. Love is most certainly not what Raina imagines in Act One, which is joining her soul to Sergius’s, and the idea that they might live happily together. Their union seems perfect, with her perfect virtuosity, and his bravery and nobleness. Shaw depicts that kind of love as being built on misrepresentation of how humans actually behave apart from fairy tales.

But Shaw does not abandon the idea of romantic love entirely. Instead, he seems to allow for it only when characters get rid of most of their presuppositions about what love could, or should, be. Bluntschli abandons much of the pretence of soldierly bravery in front of Raina when he hides in her room and is fearful and sleepy. And Raina admits that she is not a perfectly pure individual, as she occasionally does and says things that go against classically good and upright behaviour.

It’s slightly more difficult to place Sergius and Louka on this spectrum of romantic love. For them, a relationship is a network of lust and desire coupled with the improvement of one’s social standing. This is perhaps not romantic love in the way Bluntschli and Raina demonstrate, and it is surely not romantic love according to Raina’s conception at the start of the play. But it is nonetheless a foundation for a relationship in practice. Shaw seems to place far more emphasis on the way people really behave, rather than on their idealized notions about “correct” attitudes and conduct.

Arms and the Man satirizes Bulgarian and European attitudes toward modernization, technological development, and the centres of cultivation like Paris, London, and Moscow. Catherine brags that the family has installed an electric bell for the servants, even though Petkoff is much more comfortable continuing to yell for them at the top of his lungs. Raina, Catherine, and Petkoff brag that the family has a library in the estate, which is the only one in the region. Yet as the scene description finally notes in Act Three, this library is just a room with a few old volumes. Despite this reality, the Petkoffs truly believe they are at the vanguard of artistic and cultural life at the time.

John Donne as a Poet of Love

 

Donne is one of the greatest love poets in English literature. He expounds on no coherent system of the philosophy of love in his love poems. His primary concern is not thought but feeling. No scheme of thought, no interpretation of life became for him a complete and illuminating experience. The central theme of his poetry is his own intense personal mood, as a lover, a friend, and an analyst of his own experiences, worldly and religious. Donne’s love philosophy cannot unify these experiences. He used to record the reactions of his own restless and acute mind to the intense experiences of the moment. 

The love experiences as expressed in his poems were not based upon bookish conventions but on his own observations and beliefs. He experienced all phases of love -cynical strain, conjugal love strain and Platonic strain. His cynicism is always related to women’s unfaithfulness. He finds that no woman is capable of faith and virtue. For instance, in ‘Go, and Catch a Falling Star’ he gives argument after argument to prove that loyalty is very rare in women. One cannot find a faithful girl; if, after doing hard efforts, he finds her then it would have been changed until the person reaches her.

 In conjugal love strain, John Donne finds peace and harmony in love. He sees it as a passion instead of nasty work. Numerous poems by John Donne depict this strain. These poems are addressed to his wife. He sings that true love knows no decay. For instance, ‘Valediction: Of Weeping’ and ‘Valediction: Forbidden Mourning’ are about spiritual peace. As a love poet, John Donne has proved that love is part of life and that without it, life is barren and useless. Whenever he remembers his beloved, he attains peace and serenity. He cannot forget her or the moments that he has spent with her. He bids farewell to his wife cheerfully:

                                         “But think that we

                                          Are who turned aside to sleep;

                                          They who one another keep

                                          Alive never parted be.”  

            Platonic strain is the last but the most important love strain in Donne’s love poems. Love is love whether it is before marriage or after. There is always spirituality in it. Donne has improved this strain and written “Divine Poems”. To exemplify, In ‘The Sun Rising’ the poet considers love as the best thing on this planet. Similarly, in ‘Canonization’, he takes love as a holy passion. He sings:

                                    “Difference of sex no more we know

                                     Than our Guardian angels do.”

Hence, this strain is entirely the opposite of the cynical strain.

            Donne might talk about women but he never praised their beauty. He never said that he liked the hairs or lips of his beloved. He is a love devotee and talks about emotions, not physical appearances. For him, love is not just about sex. If he talks about any part of her beloved’s body then he merely describes its charm. Moreover, in his eyes, physical contact is not necessary for love. This very fact is evident from ‘Valediction: Forbidden Mourning’. It is desirous and spiritual.

Donne has not studied love but experienced it. He does not advise his reader but speaks the truth. He leaves everything to his reader to decide whether he is right or not. Donne’s greatness lies within the expression of feelings and his philosophy of love. In the end, we can say that Donne resembles Byron in cynicism, Browning in grotesqueness, Burns in purity and simplicity, and Keats in sensualism. But he adds to all these spiritual and metaphysical strains.

 

John Donne as a Metaphysical Poet

        

    Actually, the term metaphysics means something supernatural. The meaning of the term ‘metaphysical’ is 'what is beyond physical'. It is concerned with fundamental problems of life and death and soul even after death. The term metaphysical poetry means poetry dealing with metaphysical subjects. These subjects are - the nature of the universe, the movements of stars and planets and the whole relationship of man to God. Novel thought and expressions, conceit, wit, obscurity and learning are the main characteristics of Metaphysical poetry. 

          If we interpret the term ‘metaphysical’ in its strict philosophical sense, then, perhaps Donne cannot be regarded as a true metaphysical poet. He expounds on no coherent system of philosophy. His primary concern is not thought but feeling. No scheme of thought, no interpretation of life became for him a complete and illuminating experience. The central theme of his poetry is his own intense personal mood, as a lover, a friend, and an analyst of his own experiences, worldly and religious. Donne’s philosophy cannot unify these experiences. He used to record the reactions of his own restless and acute mind to the intense experiences of the moment. So he is not metaphysical in the sense in Dante, Goethe, Epicurus etc. are.   

Dryden used the term 'Metaphysical' for Donne's poetry when he said, 'Donne affects the metaphysics'. Later on, Dr Johnson called Donne and his followers 'the metaphysical poets'. In the days of Dr Johnson the term ‘Metaphysical’ was used for something abstract general reasoning. It was in this sense, perhaps, that the word came to be regarded as the equivalent of ‘fanciful, fantastic or imaginary’. Since then the word metaphysical has been used for Donne and his followers.

The Metaphysical poets were men of learning. Their poetry reveals their scholarship. From this point of view, Donne is a great metaphysical poet. To show his learning is his chief object. In his poetry, he has twisted his vast learning. Due to this, his poetry becomes very difficult to understand. In Donne's poetry, there is always an antithesis between natural and divine knowledge.

John Donne’s poetry is metaphysical because of the uniqueness of his poetry and his search for questions. Wit is dominant in his poetry, and it is vague and makes use of improbable conceits. The themes of his poems include paradoxes, fidelity, religion, Death and the Hereafter, both physical and spiritual Love, Interconnection between humanity, etc. 

Donne is one of the immortal image makers. He breaks away from the easy and familiar mythological imagery of the Elizabethans. He turns out the company of gods and goddesses and rejects the spoils of Greek and Latin poetry. He prefers directness and homeliness of expression to artificial grace. His images are drawn from his own interest. The flea to him becomes a marriage bed because it will bite the beloved after biting the poet and thus introduces his blood in her and hers in him:

                                      “This flea is you and I, and this

Our marriage bed, and marriage temple is”

Several examples of such images can be given from his songs, sonnets, hymns, elegies etc. These farfetched conceits make him a metaphysical poet.

Donne is quite dramatic in offering catchy opening lines. He almost catches the reader by his arms and gives him a jolt. This dramatic rhythm gives the illusion of talking in a state of excitement. Donne is original in his innovation of poetic rhythm. Ben Jonson called Donne “the first poet in the world for something.” His poetry is harsh, more than this it is obscure and puzzling.  That is why he is called “a very great and very puzzling poet”. He acts like a spokesman for one side, a troubled side, of human experience.

There is a “unification of sensibility” in metaphysical poetry. Donne’s poetry gives the impression that thought and argument are arising immediately out of passionate feelings. It is part of the dramatic realism of his style. A thought to Donne was an experience. His poems arise out of an emotional situation. Then he argues and reasons to make his attitude acceptable. And in this process, the conceits are used as instruments. In ‘Good Morrow’ Donne draws upon several spheres of knowledge- geography, philosophy, sea discoveries etc.- all to prove that the world of love is more important than the geographical world.

So we can say that Donne is a metaphysical poet because of the following qualities in his poetry; revolt against Elizabethan matter and manner, the blend of passion and thought, logic, analytical, scholasticism, simple language, and far-fetched conceits. He is indeed a great poet of his age- one of the greatest Jacobean poets of England, if not the greatest.